TFX QUICKSTART CARD
MINIMUM SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
Minimum 386 33 MHZ IBM PC or 100% compatibles or Tandy required,
486 recommended. Requires 2 MB or RAM Free, 4 MB RAM Free
required for sound FX and music. Requires 570K Conventional
Memory. Requires 12 to 16 MB Free Hard Disk Space. MS DOS 5.0 or
above. SVGA or VGA 256 color required. Supports Roland, LAPC1,
SCC1 Canvas, Adlib, and Soundblaster or Soundblaster Compatibles.
Supports Keyboard, Joystick, Thrustmaster, and Flightstick Pro.
Mouse Required.
INSTALLING TFX 3.5 FLOPPY DISK
To play TFX it must be installed on to a hard disk drive. Note
that the only way to abort installation is to reboot your
computer.
Insert disk 1 into the computer's floppy disk drive.
At the DOS prompt C:\ > type the letter corresponding to the
floppy disk drive (most are either A or B) followed by a colon :
and press Enter.
At the A:\ > (or B:\ >) prompt, type INSTALL and press Enter.
The TFX Hard Disk Installation Program will run. Follow the on-
screen prompts to install TFX to your hard disk drive. When you
are prompted to swap disks, do so.
Once TFX is installed to your hard disk, a Configuration Program
will run so you can define default settings for TFX. If you wish
to reconfigure the settings at a later time, ensure that you are
at the TFX directory in DOS and type CONFIG. Press ENTER to run
the TFX Configuration Program. Please note to SAVE whenever
changes are made.
Type TFX at the C:\TFX > prompt to run TFX. Total escapism is
just around the corner...
MINIMUM SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS TFX CD-ROM
Minimum 386 33 MHZ IBM PC or 100% compatibles or Tandy required.
486 Recommended. Requires 2 MB of RAM Free, 4 MB RAM Free
required for sound FX and music. CD-ROM Drive, MSCDEX 2.1 or
higher Requires 570K Conventional Memory. Requires 6 MB Free Hard
Disk Space. MS DOS 5.0 or above. SVGA or VGA 256 color required.
Supports Roland, LAPC1, SCC1 Canvas, Adlib, and Soundblaster or
Soundblaster Compatibles. Supports Keyboard, Joystick,
Thrustmaster and Flightstick Pro. Mouse Required.
INSTALLING TFX CD-ROM
Insert the TFX CD into your CD-ROM drive and log on by typing the
letter of that drive followed by a colon : and press Enter.
For example, if your CD-ROM drive is installed as drive D, type
D: and press Enter.
Type INSTALL, press Enter and follow the on-screen prompts.
TFX CD-ROM requires MSCDEX 2.1 or higher and a CD-ROM driver
installed. If your CD-ROM works with other products then these
drivers should already be installed. If not, consult the
documentation for your CD-ROM drive for details. You will need at
least 570K free for DOS after loading the CD-ROM driver and
MSCDEX.
NOTE: The following information is for both the 3.5 floppy disk
and CD-ROM versions of TFX.
TROUBLE SHOOTING
If TFX fails to install correctly, check that there is sufficient
Hard Disk Space (CD-ROM version requires 6MBs of hard disk space,
3.5 floppy version requires 12 to 16MBs of Hard Disk Space).
Should you attempt to run TFX and the necessary swap file cannot
be created you will be told.
Note that the Sound FX and Music will only be played through a
Sound Blaster if your computer has 4MB (or more) of RAM
available. If your RAM Free is between 2 to 4Mbs you can toggle
between the two by entering the Main Configuration Menu of the
game.
MEMORY MANAGEMENT
The game requires 570K free conventional memory, and at least 2
MB of RAM free to run. 4MB of RAM free required for sound and
music. If your computer system has only 4MB of RAM Total it is
impossible for your system to have 4 MB of RAM available because
some must be used for other applications. Also, not all of this
RAM is available for normal DOS usage. Only 640K is applicable to
DOS and with the addition of mouse drivers, RAM disks, or disk
cache programs this 640K soon gets used up. So, it is conceivable
to have a system with 4 MB of RAM but only have 2 MB RAM free as
well as only 510K conventional memory available for normal DOS
usage.
You can determine how much memory is available in your system by
typing MEM at the DOS prompt. This will report how much memory
your system has, how much is free for DOS usage, how much RAM you
have total, used, and free, how much EMS you have if activated,
and how much is free. You will find a line called 'Largest
Executable Program Size'. This line will show how much
Conventional memory you have available.
HOW TO WIN MORE CONVENTIONAL MEMORY
The best way to free up more memory depends on what programs you
have in your system. If you have DOS 6.0 or 6.2, use the memory
optimizer called MemMaker. Simply type MEMMAKER at the DOS prompt
and press Enter. MemMaker will alter your CONFIG.SYS and
AUTOEXEC.BAT files to make your setup more memory efficient.
MemMaker will try to load as much into high memory as possible.
It will not remove TSRs loaded high. If after running MemMaker
and confirming how much memory you now have, you still do not
have enough conventional memory free, you should edit your
CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files to avoid TSRs that cannot load
high (type REM before the line which loads the TSR). Please refer
to your DOS manual for more details on MemMaker and editing
system files. Another way of freeing up conventional memory is to
create a boot disk and use it to start your computer when you
want to play TFX. A boot disk is a floppy disk which contains all
the necessary information to start your PC, but does not include
any additional drivers that are not needed to play the game.
The following process describes how to create a simple boot disk.
This is not necessarily the best way to do this, but is the
simplest. If you use a disk compactor such as Stacker or
SuperStor, then you need to consult your manual on how to create
a suitable boot disk.
You will need a blank floppy disk. This disk must fit into drive
A of your computer. Once it is inserted, please type the
following command:
Note: Some of these commands may take a while to execute. Please
wait for the DOS prompt before typing in the next line.
FORMAT A:/S and press ENTER.
This will format the floppy disk in drive A and transfer the
system onto it. Depending on the version of DOS you are running,
you will be prompted to confirm that you wish to proceed with the
format and asked to name the disk.
After checking that the format command is about to format the
disk in drive A (and not something else!) press Y to continue the
operation. If asked for a name, type Boot Disk and press ENTER.
You may be asked if you would like to format other disks. Type N
to this question.
When you are back at the DOS prompt type the following line :
A: and press ENTER.
Note: NEVER MAKE A CHANGE AT C:\ >
When you type the following line, the DOS prompt will not
reappear until you have completed the last step. This is normal.
COPY CON: CONFIG.SYS press ENTER
DEVICE=C:\DOS\HIMEM.SYS press ENTER
DEVICE =C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE RAM press ENTER
FILES=30 press ENTER
BUFFERS=30 press ENTER
DOS=HIGH,UMB press ENTER
Now hold down the CTRL key and press the Z key, when you get a
^Z, press ENTER. After pressing ENTER the screen should say 1
FILE COPIED.
Remember when you type the following lines, the DOS prompt will
not reappear until you have completed the last step. This is
normal.
COPY CON: AUTOEXEC.BAT press ENTER
PROMPT=$P$G press ENTER.
PATH=C:\DOS press ENTER.
Now hold the CTRL key and press the Z key, you should get a ^Z.
Press ENTER.
The boot disk is now complete, reboot your computer, type MEM and
press ENTER, you should now have more than enough free memory.
The above process does not include installation of the mouse and
CD-ROM drivers. Due to the huge variety of mouse and CD-ROM
systems available it would not be possible to describe how to do
this. The best option would be to find the CD-ROM drivers in your
normal CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files and copy them to the
appropriate file in your boot disk.
Note: If making a boot disk for TFX CD-ROM please refer to the
following section on Copying TFX on to the Hard Drive.
COPYING TFX CD-ROM TO HARD DRIVE
TFX CD-ROM only requires 6MB of Hard Disk Space because the game
only partially installs onto your hard drive. TFX CD-ROM does
give the option of installing the entire game onto the Hard Drive
for a few reasons. If you find the game is taking too long to
load, copying the game onto the hard drive will speed up the
loading time. If making a boot disk for TFX CD-ROM you will not
be required to enter in the CD-ROM drivers. TFX CD-ROM copied
onto your hard drive will use a total of 12 to 16MBs of hard disk
space.
The following is the process for copying TFX CD-ROM onto the Hard
Drive:
With the game already installed log onto your CD-ROM drive by
typing the letter of that drive followed by a colon (:) and press
ENTER.
Once logged on type:
COPY TFX.BAT C:\TFX and press ENTER.
Note: If your system asks if you wish to overwrite press the Y
key for yes followed by ENTER.
Once copied and back at the CD-ROM drive type:
COPY DID.DAT C:\TFX and press ENTER.
Note: This file will not prompt you to overwrite and should take
approximately 20 seconds to copy.
Once both files are copied you can now run TFX entirely from your
hard drive without the CD.
BASIC CONTROLS
ENGINES
All three aircraft flown in TFX are powered by two engines.
Press the + key to increase the engines' thrust.
Press the - key to decrease the engines' thrust.
Press the [ key to ignite or shut down Engine 1.
Press the ] key to ignite or shut down Engine 2.
AFTERBURNERS
Press the + key on the numeric keypad to increase the
afterburner by one stage.
Press the - key on the numeric keypad to decrease the
afterburner by one stage.
Press the / key on the numeric keypad to turn off the
afterburner.
AUTO PILOT
Once the auto pilot is engaged, there are four modes of operation
available. For further details see THE AUTO PILOT on page 25.
Press the A key to toggle the auto pilot ON or OFF.
Press the 7 key for auto pilot mode 1.
Press the 8 key for auto pilot mode 2.
Press the 9 key for auto pilot mode 3.
Press the 0 key for auto pilot mode 4.
AUTO LAND
Press and hold an Alt key then press the L key to activate the
computer-controlled landing.
LANDING SYSTEMS
BRAKES
Press the W key to toggle the wheel brakes ON or OFF.
Press the B key to toggle the air brake ON or OFF.
Press and hold an Alt key then press the B key to deploy the
brake chute.
Press and hold the left-hand shift key then press the B key to
release the chute.
NAVIGATION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS
TARGET LOCK
Your aircraft can track up to 10 targets at once.
Press the C key to toggle the lock between targets.
Press the X key to break your current lock.
THE MAP
A complete overview of your surroundings. Different colored dots
represent enemy and friendly installations and airborne craft.
For further details, see THE MAP on page 14.
Press the M key to toggle the map ON or OFF.
THE MULTI-FUNCTION DISPLAYS
Each aircraft has three MFDs from which a wealth of information
is easily accessed. For further details, see MULTI-FUNCTION
DISPLAYS on page 14.
Press the 1 key to cycle through MFD1.
Press the 2 key to cycle through MFD2.
Press the 3 key to cycle through MFD3.
Press the L key to display the last displayed message.
INFRARED NIGHT SIGHT
Yes, you too can see in the dark without the aid of carrots.
Press and hold the left-hand shift key then press the N key to
toggle the infrared night sight ON or OFF.
WEAPON SELECTION
Select the weapon type: air-to-air, air-to-ground or cannons.
Note that the HUD will change to reflect the selection.
Press the Enter key to select air-to-air weapons.
Press the Enter key again to switch between the different types
of air-to-air missiles.
Press the backspace key to select air-to-ground weapons.
Press the right-hand Control key to select cannons (and change
the HUD to navigation mode).
Press the spacebar to fire the selected weapon.
THE LASER TARGET DESIGNATOR
Used to guide GBU air-to-ground missiles to their targets. For
further details, see USING THE LASER TARGET DESIGNATOR on page
38.
Press the Z key to activate the Laser Target Designator.
Press the arrow (cursor) keys to move the crosshair.
Press the < key to zoom in and the > key to zoom out.
Press the Z key when the target is shown inside the lock.
Press the X key to break the lock.
Press any function (view) key to see the aircraft.
DEFENSIVE SYSTEMS
CHAFF
Literally little pieces of tin foil which confuse the hell out of
radar-guided missiles. Note that chaff is always in limited
supply, regardless of the play option.
Press the Insert key to release chaff.
FLARES
Used to confuse heat-seeking missiles. Note that flares are
always in limited supply, regardless of the play option.
Press the Delete key to release flares.
ECM
Press the E key to emit ECM.
STEALTH
Press the S key to activate stealth mode.
OTHER SYSTEMS
EJECT
Press the Esc key TWICE to eject from your aircraft. Note that
your descent can be controlled to a limited degree.
JETTISON
Press and hold an Alt key then press the J key to jettison your
aircraft's fuel tank and air-to-ground stores.
REFUEL ACCESS
It needs to be open if you are to refuel in mid-air. For further
details, see REFUELING on page 33.
Press the ' key to open your aircraft's refuel access.
WEATHER CONDITIONS
Press an Alt key then press the W key to call up the weather
conditions in the Internal Communications area.
SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
PAUSE
Maybe you want to answer the door or the call of nature ...
Press the P key to freeze the action.
Press any key to resume play.
VIDEO RECORDER
Press and hold the left-hand Alt key then press the V key to
toggle the video recorder ON or OFF.
ACCELERATED TIME
Press the T key to toggle accelerated time ON or OFF.
QUIT
Without dying - but only if your mission is complete.
Press and hold the left-hand shift key then press the Q key to
quit play.
VIEW CONTROLS
An unprecedented number of possible viewpoints are on offer ...
INTERNAL VIEWS
From the cockpit.
Press the F1 key for a fixed forward view - with full
instrumentation.
Press the Page Up key to move the cockpit UP.
Press the Page Down key to move the cockpit DOWN.
Press the F2 key to swing the view to the left (in 60 degree
steps).
Press the F3 key to swing the view to the right (in 60 degree
steps).
Press the F4 key to look behind you.
Press and hold the right-hand shift key and then press the F1
key for a full forward view - without instrumentation.
VIRTUAL COCKPIT VIEWS
Press the F10 key for a Virtual Cockpit View.
Press and hold the right-hand shift key then press the arrow
(cursor) keys to look around the cockpit.
EXTERNAL VIEWS
Press the D key to toggle the flight details ON or OFF.
Press the F6 key for a 'fly-past' view of your aircraft.
Press the F5 key to view the aircraft from behind.
Press the F5 key a second time to pull the view back. You can
now pan the 'camera' around the aircraft.
Press and hold the right-hand shift key then press any of the
following keys...
Press the arrow (cursor) keys to pan the 'camera' around the
aircraft.
Press the End key to zoom out.
Press the Home key to zoom in.
Press the Page Up key to rotate the view to the left.
Press the Page Down key to rotate the view to the right.
WEAPON VIEWPOINTS
Some of the most impressive views are those from behind or inside
weapons.
Press the F8 key to follow cannon-fire or a missile.
Press the F8 key TWICE for an infrared missile's-eye view.
ENEMY VIEWPOINTS
It's kinda handy (and fun) to keep tabs on your position relative
to the enemy's.
Press the F7 key to view your aircraft and the enemy airborne
or ground-based craft you are tracking - on the same screen, no
less.
TFX designed and developed by Digital Image Design Ltd.
Copyright _ 1994 Ocean of America.
Ocean is a registered trademark of Ocean Software Limited. IBM is
a registered trademark of International Business Machines, Corp.
TACTICAL FIGHTER EXPERIMENT
So you want to fly? You want to REALLY fly? Well you made the
right choice with TFX... Take total control of one of three of
the finest aircraft money can't buy: the Eurofighter 2000, the
Lockheed F-22 Superstar and the Lockheed F-117A Stealth Fighter.
Puncture the clouds and marvel at the view of the world below.
Feel the intense thrill of flying low, hard and fast over cities
and rolling hills, through a hail of triple-A illuminating the
night sky and swarms of hostile fighters.
So you want to fight? In TFX there are entir countries ready to
take you on. Fly to South America for crack combat with powerful
drug barons. Succeed where so many other have failed in putting
a halt to the horror of the Bosnian conflict. Free the world
from oppression and earn medals and honors into the bargain.
Even when you manage to make the TFX world a safe place in which
to live, you can always construct your own devilish missions to
amuse yourself.
But above all: keep the peace.
INTRODUCTION
TFX is a computer game, but it is also a flight simulator. While
it can be played on a simple level as an action game, it also has
a complex flight modeling system which attempts to reproduce many
aspects of flight and of the airplanes you will be piloting. If
you have played flight simulators before, you will be familiar
with much of what this manual describes. While some flight games
have little realism, but impressive graphics and plenty of
action, some contain much military and aerodynamic detail to
reproduce many of the challenges that face a real pilot in a
combat situation. In TFX, we have tried to do both. You will know
already how advanced the graphics system is, but the flight model
has many details never before seen on a home computer simulator.
Some simulations are based on current or past aircraft, and the
writers are able to research aspects of cockpit detail, military
procedure and flight behavior by reading books and obtaining
information from the manufacturers. However, with the three
airplanes you will fly in TFX, this was not possible. Of the
three, only the F-117A is in service at the time of writing, and
even it still has many closely guarded secrets. The Eurofighter
2000 and the F-22 Superstar will enter service with the air
forces of western Europe and the USA respectively in the late
1990s, although prototypes and technology demonstrator airplanes
have been tested for them.
For this reason, aerodynamic data could not be plucked from books
or from technical reports. Test data from the Experimental
Aircraft Programme (EAP) and YF-22 prototype were available, but
much of the data required was calculated from basic aerodynamic
methods. Wing shape, body wetted area and other characteristics
were used to make estimates of the airplanes' lift, drag and
other aerodynamic performance parameters. Luckily, these
calculations corroborated quite well with the published data.
Some published data turned out to be inaccurate, when judgements
had to be made between conflicting sources of information. On
some factors, no information was available. Then, I had to make
educated guesses based on similar airplanes and common sense
requirements.
Essentially, TFX is a speculative simulation of the cutting edge
of aerial warfare. It is, in the end, entertainment, but I hope,
for the research and effort put into the model, it is
entertainment of a positive and rewarding nature.
Roderick Victor Kennedy, Aeronautical Engineer & TFX Consultant,
September 1993
LIMITED WARRANTY
TFX
Its program code, graphic representation and artwork are the
copyright of Ocean Software Limited and may not be reproduced,
stored, hired or broadcast in any form whatsoever without the
written permission of Ocean of America. All rights are reserved
worldwide.
This software product has been carefully developed and
manufactured to the highest quality standards. Please read
carefully the instructions for loading. This game has been
checked and tested for viruses. Please do not use any form of
disk utility with any Ocean product as it may corrupt the data
and render it unusable.
COPYRIGHT NOTICE
TFX designed and developed by Digital Image Design Ltd. Copyright
_ 1994 Ocean Software Limited. Ocean is a registered trademark
of Ocean Software Limited.
SECTION ONE
GETTING STARTED
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
TFX is highly compressed on the program disks and remains highly
compressed once installed on the hard disk, taking up 12 MB of
space instead of 40 MB. All data is decompressed in real time.
Normal compression programs will not be able to compress it
further.
TFX requires a 386 or 486 IBM PC compatible with either 4 MB of
extended memory or 4 MB of extra disk space if the RAM is not
present. RAM is used wherever possible, but it is not necessary.
Virtual Memory. TFX will run from a Superstore drive or any form
of compression software, e.i., Stacker and DoubleSpace. However,
it must be noted that compression software may cause installation
to fail because the program assumes there is sufficient free hard
disk space.
The more disk space and machine RAM available, the faster TFX
will run.
SECTION TWO
TFX CONFIGURATION
Until you become comfortable with TFX's level of realism, we
recommend you select 'EASY' settings (or equivalents), to get
into the swing of things. As your confidence grows you can make
life more difficult for yourself and learn how to really fly by
bumping up the settings. To return to TFX Configuration menu,
press the "accent" key.
FLIGHT CONTROLS
Choose from 'JOYSTICK', 'MOUSE' or 'KEYBOARD' to control the
basic flight of the aircraft. Note that the mouse is always used
for the selection of options.
WORLD DETAIL
There are three levels: 'LOW', 'MEDIUM' or 'HIGH'. The lower the
level of detail, the faster TFX runs.
FLIGHT MODEL
You decide the level of realism of the flight model and
consequently the effect of forces on the aircraft and its
handling. Choose from 'ARCADE', 'SIMPLE', 'REALISTIC' and
'MILITARY SPEC'. The choice depends on your confidence and
ability.
ARCADE
Flight models don't come much simpler than this ... You can defy
the laws of physics and have a ball. You can fly at ridiculous
speeds but cannot stall or crash and you won't be affected
by extreme turns.
SIMPLE
A little more complicated than the Arcade flight model.
REALISTIC
Very, but the aircraft are still simple enough to fly as the
onboard computers take care of most of the hard work, leaving you
to enjoy the flight - and combat, of course.
MILITARY SPEC
The creme de la creme of flight models. There has never - repeat,
never - been a flight model as authentic as this for the home
computer. Note that when using the Military Specification flight
model, additions are made to the HUD, the MFDs, and more besides
(further details are found in the relevant sections).
SOUND FX
The noises made during play may be turned 'ON' or 'OFF'. If
possible, leave the sound effects on - they can help enormously
(especially the speech).
MUSIC
Turn 'ON' or 'OFF' all the atmospheric music.
QUIT TO DOS
The same effect may be achieved during play as follows:
Press and hold the left-hand shift key then press the Q key to
pull up an options screen where you can quit to DOS or quit to
the enroll screen. If you quit to the enroll screen, it will not
affect your log (as if you have never played the mission)
Press and hold the left-hand shift key then press the Q key
again to return to DOS.
REALISM MENU
More advanced options. See below for further details.
REALISM MENU
G EFFECTS
The force of gravity can have unpleasant side-effects on pilots
in flight (see G-FORCE on page 36). Choose from 'NONE', 'REDUCED'
or 'REALISTIC' to determine the extent of redout or blackout when
pulling high g's.
LOSS OF CONTROL
Choose from 'NONE', 'PARTIAL' or 'ALL' to determine the extent of
control loss in extreme circumstances in flight.
CRASHING
Select 'ON' to ensure that ground crashes destroy your aircraft.
GEAR DAMAGE
Select 'ON' to ensure that rough landings and high airspeeds
damage your landing gear.
WIND
Select 'ON' to activate the effects of wind when using the
Military Specification flight model. See WEATHER CONDITIONS
overleaf for further details.
TEMPERATURE
Affects the aerodynamic characteristics of the air. When this
option is 'ON', the temperature will vary with geographic area,
weather conditions and time of day. See WEATHER CONDITIONS
overleaf for further details.
PRECIPITATION
Mainly affects runway quality, in that a wet runway can lengthen
takeoff distance. Select 'ON' to ensure that rain or snow will
fall and cause problems.
WEATHER CONDITIONS
Note that these only affect the aircraft when using the Military
Specification flight model.
Wind conditions vary with geographic area, weather and altitude.
Obviously, wind will be very high in a storm, but higher winds
will be experienced in the South Atlantic than in Italy.
Additionally, TFX models the high altitude gulf stream patterns
which are created by the Earth's rotation. In each world area,
these are treated as 100-140 knot winds which occur in the
stratosphere (above about 30,000 ft) and are roughly constant in
direction and magnitude.
Bear in mind that temperatures are higher in hotter countries.
That said, African nights are very cold, whereas in Colombia,
clouds trap the heat, and there is less variation in temperature.
SECTION THREE
TO BEGIN...
An introductory sequence sets the scene.
Press the Esc key to skip the introductory sequence. Once the
introductory sequence and credits have been shown you will be
presented with two options: 'CREATE NEW PILOT' (highlighted in
red) and 'LOAD PREVIOUS GAME'. Use the arrow (cursor) keys to
move the red highlight between the options.
Press the Enter key to select the highlighted option.
Press the Accent key to return to configuration menu.
CREATE NEW PILOT
When you are prompted to enter your first name, your surname and
your callsign, use the keyboard to type any combination of
letters and numbers up to a maximum of 20 characters. The default
name and callsign are DIRK INFERNO and LOOSE CANNON.
Press the Enter key to register your name and callsign.Your
name and callsign are used to personalize your pilot's log which
is saved to one of 10 'slots' on the hard disk. The pilot's log
records your performance in play (note: Arcade and Simulator
excepted), retaining such statistics as the number of enemy kills
you make, the number of missions you complete, your score, rank
and flight time. Use the arrow (cursor) keys to highlight one of
the slots and view further details at the bottom of the screen.
Press the Enter key to select the highlighted slot. Note that
if you select a dead pilot's log or a blank slot, you will have
to enter fresh details.
MAIN OPTIONS SCREEN
Having picked a pilot's log you are presented with the Main
Options Screen. Further options - to tailor the TFX environment
to your taste - are available during play (see section 2: TFX
CONFIGURATION on page 2). All options are now selected with
mouse-controlled pointers. Simply move the mouse-pointer's tip to
touch the desired option and press the left-hand mouse button to
select it.
There are six key ways to play TFX - from simple arcade-style
action to hard-core real-world combat simulations. You can even
build your own missions with the UN Commander option. Note that
when you become involved with the Training, Flashpoints or Tour
Of Duty options, you are susceptible to all rules and regulations
and run the risk of Court Martial, capture and more ...
Almost every man-made object in the TFX environment is worth
points. You score points for every authorized enemy target you
destroy. However, as a UN peace envoy, you are not expected to
fly around blowing up all and sundry. Unless you wish to incur
the wrath of the media and the UN Command, do not fire unless
fired upon - or you have been given specific permission to take
out hostile targets. Your score is reduced significantly should
you decide to attack anything other than a 'legitimate' target.
Hospitals and churches, for example, are best left alone as the
penalties for their destruction are severe, particularly in
Training, Flashpoints and Tour Of Duty situations.
Points are also awarded for classy flying - especially in
dangerous weather conditions. Basically, the greater your display
of skill, the more points you score.
As missions are completed, your rank increases and special awards
may be given. In TFX you start as a Second Lieutenant. With skill
(and a little luck) you should (ahem) fly through the ranks of
First Lieutenant, Captain, Major, Lieutenant Colonel and Colonel
to become a General.
ENROLL TO UNAF
Select this to create a new pilot's log or load a previously
created one.
ARCADE
To get a feel for TFX, there's no better place to start than
here.
There are no takeoffs and landings to worry about, and it doesn't
matter if you somehow manage to live or die or lose your aircraft
(it's impossible to crash it, but you may be blown away) - you
can always start again and attempt to improve your score.
The Arcade option comprises five levels of increasing difficulty.
Each level represents a unique environment with different
terrain, times of day, weather conditions, and levels of enemy
competence (from a handful of amateur MiG-21 pilots to squadrons
of veteran MiG-29 pilots). You also get to knock out ground
targets including factories, SAM radar sites and air bases.
Note that your aircraft is automatically armed. The weapon
selection depends on your choice of aircraft (the F-117A cannot
be flown here). Chaff and decoy flares are in restricted supply,
but you do get unlimited ammunition and fuel to play with.
TRAINING
There's only one way to become involved with the deep and
meaningful Flashpoints and Tour Of Duty campaigns, and that's to
undertake and complete a carefully considered selection of
training missions. No, that's not entirely true: there is another
way to prove yourself worthy, but that's for you to discover ...
The 10 Training missions are designed to help familiarize you
with all aspects of TFX. You will fly all three aircraft through
a broad spectrum of combat situations. The choice of weaponry is
yours. Where you fly from - in the air or on a land- or aircraft
carrier-based runway - depends on the mission in question.
SIMULATOR
Fly the way you want to with no rules or regulations to hold you
back.
With the Simulator there are no points to win or lose, no awards
to earn, and no threats of court martial ... This is
unadulterated flight and fight simulation at its best.
You choose the location, the weather conditions and the time of
day to determine the aircraft you will control and from where you
will fly it: in the air or a land- or carrier-based runway. You
also get to arm the aircraft with whatever weaponry it can take
(see ARMING YOUR AIRCRAFT on page 35), but choose wisely:
consider what would be appropriate for your previously selected
specifications.
TOUR OF DUTY
Enroll to one of three squadrons - the F-22 Superstars, the F-117
Darkstars or the EF-2000 Blue Angels - and become involved in
their actions around the world. But this is more than a glorified
world tour ...
The theater of operations will become apparent when the time is
right. A full brief of the situation at hand will be given along
with a map of the area in which the mission takes place.
Press the Space Bar to step through a numbered breakdown of the
mission.
Press the right-hand mouse button to skip the mission briefing.
Now arm your aircraft. Where you fly from - in the air or on a
land- or aircraft carrier-based runway - depends on the mission
in question.
FLASH POINTS
Five true-to-life storylines with a mission structure - an
interactive soap opera, if you will. The way you play will change
the course of history, for better or worse. Pick a scenario, any
scenario. Now pay close attention to the news reports, press
conferences, UN Assembly crisis meetings and orders from the top
brass as the story's background unfolds and the scene is set
before your very eyes ...
Press the left-hand mouse button to skip any stage of the
background information.
Press the spacebar or the Esc key to move on to the next
mission.
An aircraft and weaponry suitable to the mission at hand will be
chosen for you. All you have to do is complete the missions ...
UN COMMANDER
Build your own missions with ease from the comfort of UN Central
Command. It wouldn't be wise to fly an F-117A Stealth Bomber over
a hostile terrain, in the middle of the day, for all to see, and
here's where you can find out why ...
Choose anywhere in the TFX world and use satellite imagery to
scan the area. Select your targets, determine the time of day,
the weather conditions, the quantity and quality of threats and
more besides.
Pick an aircraft, arm it and then attempt to score as many points
as possible and see if you can beat yourself at your own game.
You can even save the missions to hard disk and then copy them to
floppy disk to swap with your pals.
For further details, see BUILDING A MISSION on page 42.
SECTION FOUR
THE COCKPIT
Although some functions and instruments vary slightly between the
three aircraft flown in TFX, the same generic cockpit is used
throughout. In general, the cockpit utilizes the latest in Multi-
Function Display technology for clear and concise information
flow.
When designing a multi-billion dollar super jet, a great deal of
time and effort is spent to house the pilot in a comfortable,
electronic environment not congested with hundreds of individual
unimportant instruments such as cigar lighters. The instruments
show exactly what the pilot needs to know at any one given time.
For example, designers made it possible for the Eurofighter 2000
pilot to concentrate on hostile threats and potential danger and
not have to worry about flying the aircraft.
Within the cockpit the displays are arranged in appropriate
functional groups including engines and other related systems (on
the far left-hand side), electronic counter measures and
avoidance systems (on the far right-hand side), and vital
warnings for incoming missiles, onboard faults and so on (the top
section).
The cockpit has a simple color coding system for the information
displayed:
GREEN
The system is active and functional
YELLOW
Caution! The system has sustained slight damage
RED
The system is damaged beyond repair
ENGINE MANAGEMENT AND FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
AUTO PILOT FUNCTION LIGHT
Shows that the auto pilot is active. The number displayed next to
the light shows the mode. For further details, see THE AUTO
PILOT.
24-HOUR CLOCK
Shows the time expired or the local time of day.
the cockpit (cont.)
ENGINE IGNITION LIGHTS
One for each engine. An engine is shut down when its light is
red. Ignition has been achieved when the light is green. Note
that if either light flashes or turns red, the engine is damaged
and may shut down.
FUEL GAUGE
Shows the amount of remaining fuel in pounds. A yellow caution
light means that less than 500 lbs of fuel remains. A red warning
light and a message on the HUD means that the fuel level has
fallen to a dangerous level - below 200 lbs.
RPM GAUGE
Shows the amount of engine thrust being applied. The RPM should
not drop below 60 per cent while in flight. When afterburners
have been activated, the RPM will be at 100 per cent.
AFTERBURNER STAGE LIGHTS
One for each increase in power (beware that afterburners consume
vast amounts of fuel). Note that the F-117 does not have any
afterburners.
INDICATOR PANEL
STALL INDICATOR
The light flashes when the aircraft is approaching a stall and
stays on when the aircraft has stalled (it may be accompanied by
an audio warning). To recover from a stall, increase your
throttle and push the aircraft's nose down - or hit the Panic
Recovery Button!
CONTROL PANEL
A status panel for four key systems: landing gear, auto pilot,
wheel brake and arrester hook. The status of the respective
systems are indicated by the following colors:
GREY
The system is inactive but functional.
GREEN
The system is active and functional.
YELLOW
Caution! The system has sustained slight damage.
RED
The system is damaged beyond repair.
MAIN CONSOLE
MASTER WARNING LIGHT
It only illuminates when an onboard function is damaged. Check
the MFD Warning Panel to discover the specific problem.
MASTER CAUTION LIGHT
It only lights up when there are problems or faults which may
be repaired while in flight. Check the MFD Warning Panel to
discover the specific problem.
FIRE LIGHT
It lights up to show that one or both of the engines are on fire.
Your best bet is to eject ASAP.
INTERNAL MESSAGES PANEL
Status information from your onboard computer is displayed here.
EXTERNAL MESSAGES PANEL
Communication from AWACS, Control Towers and so on is displayed
here.
MASTER THREAT PANEL
LOCK
Lights up when an enemy radar has fixed a lock on your aircraft.
Use ECM and chaff to attempt to break the lock.
LAUNCH
An instant alert to danger when an enemy missile is launched from
within a range of approximately 30 miles (air-to-air) or 50 miles
(air-to-ground).
INFRARED-GUIDED MISSILE WARNING
Lights up when an infrared-guided missile is heading for your
aircraft.
RADAR-GUIDED MISSILE WARNING
Lights up when a radar-guided missile is heading for your
aircraft.
THREAT LIGHT
Activates when any unidentified aircraft appears on your radar or
within a certain range. Note that the radar does not need to be
in air-to-air mode for the Threat Light to activate.
COUNTER MEASURES PANEL
ECM AND STEALTH INDICATOR Lights up to show that your aircraft's
ECM or stealth systems are active. Note that only the F-22 and
Eurofighter 2000 have the capability to become radar invisible.
CHAFF INDICATOR
All three aircraft have a maximum of 15 Chaff canisters.
DECOY FLARE INDICATOR
All three aircraft have a maximum of 15 Decoy Flare canisters.
For details of the HUD itself, see page 18.
BASIC HUD INFORMATION
AoA INDEXER
A fixed display showing the aircraft's angle of attack on
approach to the runway for landing. The following lights provide
specific information regarding your AoA:
TOP
Your AoA is too high because your airspeed is too low.
MIDDLE
Your AoA is good for landing.
BOTTOM
Your AoA is too low because your airspeed is too high.
UNDERCARRIAGE DISPLAY
The bottom light comes on when your aircraft's undercarriage is
on the ground. The top light (NW) informs you that steering is
now performed by the nose wheel of the aircraft so that the
aircraft can taxi and manoeuvre on the runway.
THE MAP
The overview of your theater of operations is not shown on the
cockpit but is always accessible. Information on any hostile
aircraft your radar is currently tracking is shown on the right-
hand side of the map. Your systems can track up to 10 hostile
aircraft at once.
Press the M key to call up the Map.
RED
Enemy aircraft
RED WHITE FLASHING
Authorized enemy ground target
ORANGE
Mobile surface target, e.g., a ship or tank
GREEN
Friendly aircraft
BLUE
Friendly surface craft, e.g., a ship or a tank
BLUE WHITE FLASHING
Runway selected for landing
MULTI-FUNCTION DISPLAYS
Press 1 key to cycle through MFD1
Each aircraft has three MFDs which incorporate the following
displays:
MASTER WARNING PANEL
Shows which of the main systems is currently operational and
their current status.
GREEN
The system is active and functional.
YELLOW
Caution! The system has sustained slight damage.
RED
The system is damaged beyond repair.
MASTER WARNING PANEL ABBREVIATIONS
It certainly helps to know what the following abbreviations refer
to when they appear.
ENL Left Engine
UC Undercarriage
ENR Right Engine
COM Communications
WEP Weapons
FLP Flap
FUE Fuel
HUD Head-Up Display
ABK Air Brakes
RAD Radar
WBK Wheel Brakes
OIL Oil Pressure
SYSTEMS DISPLAY
Provides current flight details including RPM, speed, altitude,
fuel and possible range with the present fuel load.
WEAPONS DISPLAY
A diagrammatic overview of the aircraft's pylons and any weapons
on them. Also shown is the type of each weapon, and which weapons
are armed.
FORWARD LOOKING INFRARED VIEW
The FLIR shows a forward view through your laser target
designator when it is not yet locked on to any ground-based
object. When you lock on an object the display will automatically
change to the DLIR.
DOWNWARD LOOKING INFRARED VIEW
The DLIR shows the target locked on to by the laser designator.
For further details see USING THE LASER TARGET DESIGNATOR on page
38.
GROUND TARGET DATA BANK
Shows your target and its distance from your present point in an
air-to-ground mission.
Press the N key to switch between target views.
MULTI-FUNCTION DISPLAY RADARS
Press 2 key to cycle through MFD2
The TFX aircraft are fitted with the latest Westinghouse multi-
role radar with variable scan and track modes including air-to-
air and air-to-ground, and a map display. The symbology remains
the same in all modes.
Activating the radars will break Stealth mode if it is
operational, so don't activate your radars if you wish to remain
invisible to enemy radar. The only 'safe' radar is the moving map
display which uses a passive radar system which does not scan and
emit any signal - it only receives information.
AIR-TO-AIR RADAR SYMBOLOGY
RED DOT
Hostile aircraft
RED SQUARE
Hostile aircraft you are currently tracking
GREEN DOT
Friendly aircraft
RED FLASHING DIAMOND
An airborne missile
YELLOW FLASHING DIAMOND
Friendly missile
AIR-TO-GROUND RADAR SYMBOLOGY
RED DOT
Hostile mobile surface target, e.g., a ship or tank
RED FLASHING DIAMOND
Airborne missile
RED FLASHING DOT
SAM radar
BLUE DOT
Friendly surface craft, e.g., a ship or tank
HORIZONTAL SITUATION RADAR
Provides a 360 degree horizontal scan up to a radius of 50 miles
around your aircraft. It is common for close formations of
aircraft to appear as a single 'trace' or dot, which is where the
variable range search comes into effect ... Switch between a
radius of 50 miles, 30 miles 10 miles and 2 miles (the range is
shown in the bottom right-hand corner of the display). Note that
the radar only shows relevant data when the aircraft is in either
air-to-air or air-to-ground mode.
BEYOND VISUAL RANGE RADAR
BVR radar is used for long range scans and to target long range
air-to-air missiles. A narrow beam can scan up to 120 miles
(180 miles if the area is clutter-free - for example, the ocean).
The BVR radar can determine whether an aircraft is hostile but
the immense distance means that precise tracking data will not be
given.
MOVING MAP DISPLAY (MMD) A digitally-generated map which moves
relative to your aircraft in the center of the display. A white
line indicates your aircraft's direction, and its heading is
given. The MMD also shows authorized ground targets (flashing red
and white) and airborne radar traces of any aircraft relevant to
your location. A full map of your theater of operation is always
available.
CONTROL MFD
Displays information regarding the in-flight control of your
aircraft. In an F-22 or Eurofighter, the mission adaptive wing
indicator in the top right-hand corner shows a schematic
representation of the wing cross-section. A short line on the
left-hand side of the Control MFD shows the angle of deflection
of the leading edge flaps or slats (although in fact slats move
in a more complex way). A longer line on the right-hand side
shows deflection of the trailing edge flaps. The greater the
downward deflection of the flaps, the more lift they produce.
Normally the flaps are automatically adjusted in flight according
to the aircraft's needs, but if the flaps become damaged, they
may lock in position.
In an F-22, thrust vectoring angles are indicated in the top
left-hand corner of the Control MFD. The maximum deflection is 20
degrees up or down.
Control mode information is shown below these displays. The
sensitivity of the aerodynamic controls is automatically adjusted
to suit your situation. The modes are as follows:
CRUISE
Medium sensitivity - the normal mode
COMBAT
Highly sensitive - for air-to-air combat
LANDING
Insensitive - for a steady landing
AUTO
Auto pilot
Note that when the auto pilot is activated, further information
is displayed. See THE AUTO PILOT on page 25 for more details.
THE HEAD-UP DISPLAY UNIT (INCLUDING HELMET MOUNTED HUD)
The Head-Up Display provides important data for the pilot during
all aspects of flight. It is the most important instrument you
will use in TFX. The helmet-mounted HUD comes into effect when
the cockpit is not shown, for example, when using the full
forward view.
The HUD has three main modes as follows:
* NAVIGATION MODE
* AIR-TO-AIR MODE
* AIR-TO-GROUND MODE
It also has two sub-modes: INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM and REFUEL.
To adjust the intensity of the HUD color to a comfortable
setting, use the "y" key to decrease and the "u" key to increase.
Note that when using the Military Specification flight model, the
HUD displays extra information: an Angle of Attack indexer, a
Vertical Speed Indicator and Mach number (see page 24).
NAVIGATION HUD MODE
A non-combat flight mode which provides both air-to-air or air-
to-ground radar capability and a cruise control flight model.
Note that the cannon becomes the only available weapon.
Press the right hand Control key to select the navigation mode
HUD.
Press Enter to return to Radar.
Certain details are common to all HUD modes as follows:
AIRSPEED
In knots. Mach speed is also shown with the Military
Specification flight model.
ALTITUDE
In feet, from sea level.
ENGINE THRUST
Shows the percentage of thrust applied by your engines.
G-FORCE
The current gravity force upon you and your aircraft. The g-force
indicator will read '1G' when your aircraft is flying level or is
stationary. For further details see G-FORCE on page
28.
HEADING
In units of 10 degrees. North is at 0 degrees, East is at 90
degrees, South is at 180 degrees and West is at 270 degrees.
MAP CO-ORDINATES
Your current location in the world on a grid reference of 0 to
200 along X and Y axes. The center of the theater of operations
is 100, 100. The farthest Southwest point is 0, 0, and the
farthest Northeast point is 200, 200.
WEAPON TYPE
The available weapon depends on the HUD mode.
PITCH LADDER
A series of lines which move, relative to your aircraft's motion,
through the center of the HUD. The Pitch Ladder bars show your
aircraft's angle of climb and dive, and its roll angle. The
center Ladder Bar at 0 degrees is horizontal - to reflect the
aircraft's status. The steeper the aircraft's angle of climb or
dive, the more acutely triangular the shape of the Ladder Bars.
HUD MODE
Shows the HUD mode in use. The HUD symbology changes and relevant
weapons become available. For further details, see the sections
that follow.
NAV
Navigation mode
AA
Air-to-Air mode
AG
Air-to-Ground mode
ILS
Instrument Landing System mode
AIR-TO-AIR HUD MODE
When this mode is chosen, the air-to-air radar is activated, the
flight model is adjusted to a more appropriate air-to-air combat
profile, and air-to-air missiles can be launched.
The HUD symbology becomes combat-specific.
Press the Enter key to select the air-to-air HUD mode.
Press the Enter key again to cycle through any air-to-air
missiles on board and activate the relevant air-to-air systems.
MASTER ARM INDICATOR
Informs you that the currently selected weapon is armed and ready
to fire.
AIMING RETICULE
This 'kill circle' appears on the HUD when an air-to-air missile
is selected. The size of the Aiming Reticule depends on the
chosen missile: a small circle is used for long-range stand-off
weapons such as the AAAM, and a large circle is for short-range
missiles. Your target must be inside this circle if the missile
is to hit it.
ASPECT ANGLE CARET
Shows the target aircraft's heading relative to you. If the caret
is at the bottom of the Aiming Reticule, the target is flying
away from you. If the caret is at the top, the target is flying
toward you.
TRACKING INFORMATION
On any aircraft being tracked by your radar as follows:
AIRCRAFT TYPE
CURRENT HEADING
RANGE (MILES)
Press the C key to toggle tracking between any aircraft within
range.
DIAMOND X
When you see this diamond with an 'X' at its center, you will
know that a target is outside the HUD view. Fly in the direction
of the Diamond X until the target enters the HUD view. The
Diamond X will change to a Target Designator Box.
TARGET DESIGNATOR BOX
Appears around the target when it's inside the Aiming Reticule -
even if the target is beyond visual range.
MISSILE SEEKER HEAD
When a target has been picked up by the designator box and is in
range, the Missile Seeker Head diamond appears inside the HUD's
Aiming Reticule. The diamond will come to rest and flash when the
Missile Seeker Head locks on to the enemy target. The currently
selected missile is now locked on to the target and ready to
launch.
THE BIG X
Flashes across the entire HUD when the target is too close to be
hit with your currently selected weapon - in which case switch to
a short-range weapon such as the cannon.
AIR-TO-GROUND HUD MODE
When this mode is chosen, air-to-ground targeting radars are
activated, the flight model will change to air-to-ground attack
profile and air-to-ground weapons can be selected. If your
aircraft is carrying GBU bombs, the Laser Target Designator will
become available. When a weapon is in range, then "IN RNG"
appears on the bottom left of the HUD. For some air-to-ground
missiles, the actual distance to the target being shown may be
presented until the "IN RNG" appears.
Press the backspace key to select the air-to-ground HUD mode.
MASTER ARM INDICATOR
Informs you that the currently selected weapon is armed and ready
to fire.
THE AIMING CROSS
The most prominent feature of air-to-ground mode is this
crosshair which is used to target air-to-ground weapons.
LAUNCHING MAVERICK MISSILES
To target a non-GBU or non-guided weapon, line up your aircraft
with the target until it is shown in the HUD crosshair.
Press the spacebar to lock on to the target.
When you have locked on to the target (also known as 'pickling
the target'), a target designator box will be shown. (The target
designator box will appear over any ground target with a lock on
it, whether it was made by 'pickling' or by the Laser Target
Designator.)
Press the spacebar again to launch the missile.
DROPPING A MK82 FREEFALL BOMB
When you select this weapon, a Continuous Computerized Impact
Point (CCIP) line emanates from the center of the crosshair on
the HUD. The CCIP line shows the path the weapon will take if it
is launched at that moment. A small circle at the end of the line
shows the projected impact point, which means that the aircraft
is at a suitable angle to launch the weapon. Approach the target
at a steep angle (30-40 degree dive) and as soon as that small
aiming circle on the end on the line crosses the target, release
the bomb. Note: this is best done at an altitude of 2,000 ft or
more.
CANNON
When the air-to-ground cannon is selected, a trajectory line
appears on the HUD to project the impact point of the cannon
fire.
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM HUD MODE
A variation of the navigation mode HUD comes into effect when the
Instrument Landing System is activated.
Take note of the information displayed at the bottom of the HUD
and use it in conjunction with the HUD guidelines and the AoA
Indexer to make a perfect landing.
REFUEL HUD MODE
A variation of the air-to-air HUD comes into effect when you are
set to refuel (see REFUELLING on page 33).
Instead of an enemy target, the HUD tracks the refuel aircraft.
Note that all weapons systems are shut down for refuelling.
MILITARY SPECIFICATION FLIGHT MODEL
The HUD has a few extra features when using the Military
Specification flight model.
ANGLE OF ATTACK INDICATOR
Your aircraft's - in 10 degrees increments.
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
Shows the vertical speed of the aircraft in units of feet per
second. The VSI is mainly used to perform good landings (a
healthy VSI landing speed is up to 10 feet per second).
THE AUTO PILOT
TFX has a 'proper' auto pilot system which controls the aircraft
by adjusting joystick and throttle inputs. There are four main
modes, as well as a special 'panic button' mode. When auto pilot
is activated, the Control MFD shows the auto pilot mode and any
appropriate data.
The following details (shown on the Control MFD) are inputs to
the auto pilot which adjusts the aircraft controls in an attempt
to match your requirements.
MODE 1: WAYPOINT
Directs your aircraft at the chosen speed to the next waypoint.
Use the up and down arrow (cursor keys) to adjust the waypoint
altitude.
MODE 2: HEADING
Maintains the required heading, altitude and speed - adjusted
with the arrow (cursor) keys.
MODE 3: TRACKING
Directs your aircraft toward the aircraft you are tracking on
radar. The default speed is the aircraft's own, but adjustments
can be made.
MODE 4: AUTO THROTTLE
Leaves the joystick (or mouse or key) control in the hands of the
pilot, but uses throttle to maintain the speed shown in the
Control MFD. Your aircraft's speed will not remain constant in
all situations, for example, no great speed can be sustained in
an 80 degree climb.
RECOVERY MODE
A special feature of the Eurofighter 2000 and many Russian-built
fighters. In TFX it is available for all three aircraft. The
aircraft is returned to straight and level flight. It is not a
guaranteed crash evasion technique, so it should be used early,
if you become disoriented, or are in a steep dive.
SECTION FIVE
HOW TO FLY
Here's Rod Kennedy to hold the hands of anyone using the Military
Specification flight model for the first time.
TAKEOFF
At the start of the flight you will find yourself at one end of a
very long runway, with your engines off. Before switching them
on, check the weather conditions (if you have weather activated).
Press and hold an Alt key then press the W key to check the
weather conditions. The information is displayed in the Internal
Communications area.
The following points must be considered:
If the runway is wet or icy, you require a longer takeoff
distance.
If you have a full tank of fuel and a lot of stores, you require
a longer takeoff distance and a higher takeoff speed.
If the wind is coming from your tail, you require a higher
takeoff ground speed.
If the wind is coming from in front, your takeoff ground speed
will be lower. (It is always better to take off into headwind.)
If the wind is coming from either side, be careful. If you are
in an F-117A, you require a long takeoff distance, but the
Eurofighter and F-22 are short-takeoff aircraft.
Now check your controls. Make sure your wheel brakes and air
brakes (if you have them) are off. Now, activate your engines and
put throttle to 100 per cent. If you have afterburners and need
to shorten your takeoff run, turn them on and increase the stages
as necessary. You should find you are beginning to move down the
runway at increasing speed. When you reach the stated takeoff
speed for the aircraft you are flying, start to pull back on the
joystick (or the mouse, or press the 'down arrow' key). Your
angle of attack indicator should start to rise. Keep clear of the
stall angle (about 25-30 degrees on an F-22 or Eurofighter, 40
degrees on an F-117A), and check that you are not losing speed.
You should soon see your Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) start to
rise as you become airborne.
Watch your VSI, and make sure you are gaining speed. If you
aren't, increase thrust. If this doesn't work, pitch down a
little, but make sure you don't start to lose altitude. Your
speed should now be well clear of 200 knots, and your altitude
should be over 1,000 feet. Retract your undercarriage, and look
ahead to avoid any hills or mountains. Now check the direction
for your first waypoint. You are ready to begin the mission
proper ...
STEADY FLIGHT
To fly at constant altitude in a constant direction, your wings
must be level. Check this by looking from the front of the
cockpit to the horizon. If your wings are level, then the horizon
will be flat. Next, check your VSI. This is the scale in the top
right corner of the Head-Up Display (HUD). The line extending up
or down from the zero mark shows the change in altitude in feet
per second. The box to the left shows the exact value as a
number.
To fly at a constant height, you want this reading to be about
zero. If it is negative, pull gently back on the stick (or
mouse), or tap the 'down arrow' key. You will see the horizon
appear to fall as the aircraft's nose rises. How fast this change
occurs will depend on how far you moved the joystick (or mouse)
or how long you held the key down, and on whether you were in
cruise, combat or landing mode. If your VSI has a positive
reading, then the same applies, but push the joystick (or mouse)
forward, or press the 'up arrow' key.
TURNING
Although turning is only a horizontal change of direction,
airplanes can only perform flat (unbanked) turns at low speeds.
Normally, the rudders cannot be used simply to turn the
airplane's nose toward a different heading. Airplanes have much
more control in pitching (up-down rotation), and so turns are
made by changing a yawing (sideways turning) motion into one
involving pitch. This is done by banking the aircraft, that is,
by raising one wing and lowering the other.
To make a turn, you must bank the aircraft so that your desired
direction is above your nose. So, push the joystick (or mouse)
sideways for a second (or press either the 'left arrow' or 'right
arrow' key), then release it. The aircraft will bank and your
nose should slowly begin to edge below the horizon as you yaw
into the turn. Now, pull back on the joystick (or mouse), or tap
the 'down arrow' key, so as to keep your nose level. You are now
executing a level turn. The more you bank, the faster you will be
able to turn with a level nose.
While turning, you are now using only part of your lift to keep
the aircraft up. The rest of your lift is changing the direction
of your aircraft's movement. Aerodynamic stability makes sure
that your aircraft's nose does not stray too far from this
direction at any time. Obviously, as only part of your lift is
balancing out your weight, you need more lift in total to stay
up. When lift is different to weight, you begin to feel the
effect of the resulting acceleration. This is called g-force.
G-FORCE
Nobody feels the effect of gravity. Gravity acts evenly on every
particle of your body, so it does not stretch your muscles or
compress your bones the way other forces can. However, when you
are in the Earth's gravitational field, you will fall unless
something stops you. It could be the pavement or the floor of
your house, or the chair you are sitting on. Something supports
your weight and provides an equal and opposite force to that
created by gravity. This you feel. If you are standing on the
ground, the force that counteracts your weight does not act
evenly: it acts on your feet, and every part of your weight, from
your head or your hands or wherever, must be supported by your
legs and your feet. So you feel your weight in the sense that you
feel the force transmitted from the ground to your feet to your
head.
Similarly, if you are in a jet fighter in a tight turn, you feel
the force that accelerates your body in the same direction as the
airplane. For comparison, we discuss not the actual force of the
aircraft on the pilot, which depends on his weight, but the ratio
of the force to his weight. So, in level flight, your seat exerts
a force equal to your weight, and you are said to experience 1g
(pronounced 'one gee'). The same value equals the ratio of the
lift force of the aircraft to its own weight.
Accelerating upwards adds to the initial 1g - you feel heavier,
so upward acceleration is said to produce 'positive gees', and
downward acceleration to produce 'negative gees'. If you were
flying upside down, your up is down, so you would now experience
-1g ('negative one gee').
Space shuttle astronauts experience up to 3g acceleration. A
change of 2g is substantial (one feels twice as heavy under 2g
acceleration). Normal human tolerance is about 9g and -3g, with
the use of air force g-suits' which help to alleviate the
effects. When you are pulling high positive g's, your blood is
'pulled' towards your lower body and away from your head. This
can lead to a loss of vision and consciousness, known as
'blackout'. Under negative g's, blood pools in your upper body
and head, leading to what is known as 'redout'. Additionally, a
fast change in acceleration can cause a very fast g-induced loss
of consciousness, called G-LOC.
In TFX, blackout and redout are simulated on screen as graphical
effects. In the Realism Menu (see TFX CONFIGURATION on page 50),
you can define whether you want these effects disabled, and
whether you want a realistic loss of control in blackout.
LANDING
Landing is a challenge for any new pilot. There is nothing so
embarrassing as downing eight MiGs, reducing an enemy runway to
rubble and then spreading the debris of your fighter across the
length of your own airfield. In TFX, you can always select the
auto land feature, but there is no better way to end a mission
than a proper manual landing.
First find an airfield. Activate the Instrument Landing System
(ILS) HUD mode. If there is a friendly runway nearby you will be
given the runway direction and heading. Approach from the correct
direction and check your speed. As you near the runway, it should
be near the aircraft's stated landing speed (150 knots for the F-
117A, about 30 knots slower for the other aircraft). If your
speed is too high, try to slow down by reducing engine rpm, and
activating air brakes. Your glide path should be around seven
degrees descending. You can tell if your glide angle is right by
looking at the horizontal bar on the HUD, the Glide Slope
Deviation (GSD) bar. When it is in the center, your glide angle
is correct. The vertical bar is called the Localizer Deviation
(LD) bar, and measures your offset from the middle of the runway.
To the right hand side of the HUD is the Angle of Attack indexer:
two arrows around a circle.
If your Angle of Attack (AoA) is too high, the top arrow
('caret') will be lit. Increase your speed.
If your AoA is too low, the bottom caret will be lit. Decrease
your speed.
If your AoA is correct, the middle circle will be lit.
If your glide slope is correct, but your AoA is not, then your
speed is wrong.
When you make any necessary adjustments, your glide slope
indicator may go off-center. You must now readjust your pitch
angle with the joystick (or mouse, or keys) to re-center it. This
is a continuous process of adjusting glide slope angle and AoA
until you get it right.
As your speed falls below 180 knots, lower your landing gear. The
drag from your gear will reduce your speed a little. As you slow
down and increase your angle of attack, you will notice that
speed decreases still further, as a result of AoA. It may
actually be necessary to increase thrust again just to maintain
your new, lower speed. Do not worry about increasing even to 80
or 90 per cent military power to stay airborne. Be careful
though: if you lower your nose, you will speed up again.
If any of your indicators read badly, if airspeed or altitude is
too high as you near the runway, do not attempt to land. Throttle
up and fly over the runway, turn around and head back a few miles
in the opposite direction, then turn back and try again.
If all goes well, you should arrive at around 50 ft altitude near
the start of the runway. Pull back to decrease your glide slope,
and watch your VSI. As you touch down, it should read less than 5
ft/s downwards. Increase thrust if necessary to keep speed up as
you touch down. When you touch the ground, the ground light to
the left-hand side of the HUD should come on. Reduce thrust, and
apply your wheel brakes. If you are in a Stealth Fighter, deploy
your brake parachute now. Reduce rpm to minimum. Soon, as speed
falls, the NW nose wheel steering light left of the HUD will come
on. Now use the joystick (or mouse, or the 'left arrow' and
'right arrow' keys) to steer left or right and keep on the
runway.
When your speed reaches zero, turn off both engines. You can now
end the mission.
CARRIER LANDINGS
Only the F-22 is supposed to land on carriers in TFX. In carrier
missions, you fly a different version of the F-22
with an air brake, larger wings and tougher landing gear. Carrier
landing with any other aircraft is highly inadvisable, but
possible in theory. Follow the instructions as above, and
approach the carrier deck from behind at about 20 degrees anti-
clockwise from the carrier's forward direction, in order to
approach the angled deck straight.
Deploy your arrester hook and aim to touch down in the short
stretch of runway between the start of the deck and the arrester
wires.
If you hit the deck too quickly, you could bounce right over the
wires. If you approach too low, your undercarriage will hit the
back of the deck, which will probably spell D-E-A-T-H. If you
approach too high, you will miss the hook, which is somewhat less
disastrous. If you miss, you will need to turn around to make
another pass. For this reason, when you are almost at the wire,
turn on your afterburners. If you miss, you don't want to stall.
Even with full afterburners, the wire will be strong enough to
stop your aircraft.
EMERGENCIES
In landing, many things can go wrong. If your aircraft is already
damaged, landing may be made much harder, but attempting a crash
landing if possible is always preferable to ejecting and losing
your aircraft. If you have engine damage, follow the above
procedure as best you can. You may have a much higher VSI
reading, and you could damage your gear, but gliding down with
both engines out is possible.
Gear damage could prevent you from either retracting or lowering
your undercarriage. If you cannot lower the undercarriage, land
without. Try to keep the VSI very low, and deploy the brake chute
if you have one on touchdown. If things look bad when you hit the
ground, eject.
If your wheel brakes are damaged, it will be harder to stop.
Deploy the brake chute and air brakes. If you look like careering
off the end of the runway, deploy your arrester hook. Every
runway has arrester cables for emergency landings.
If you can't actually land on the runway, land near to it. You
will be in for a rough ride, but should have a good chance.
DAMAGE
All of the systems in your aircraft are susceptible to damage
which affects the appearance of the displays and the behavior of
your aircraft. Unless the damage is minor, your priority should
be to return home alive and, if possible, with your aircraft
intact.
Damage can be inflicted upon your aircraft by AAA, SAMs - even
farmers with shotguns! The master warning panel and caution panel
will alert you of the damage. If serious damage occurs and you
have lost control and power you still may be able to perform an
emergency landing and land safely.
The player should only eject as a last resort if the aircraft is
on fire and spinning to the ground or a direct missile hit.
The warning display panel on your multi-function display when lit
red then that particular system is damaged beyond repair or has
failed totally. When the system is yellow this is not permanent
damage and can be rectified.
REFUELING
There will come a time when the tiger in your tank is exhausted
and you run out of fuel. Fortunately for the forgetful, you are
warned that your fuel is running low, in which case the time is
nigh to refuel. You have a choice:
* Find a friendly runway and land (where you will also be
rearmed).
* Find a KC Tanker - a refueling aircraft.
Both methods are not easy and require practice, but it should be
noted that mucho bonus points are given for refueling in the air.
A KC Tanker is always full of fuel and on standby above the
clouds, so fly high. The tanker usually operates at a service
level of 30,000 ft and at a speed of around 300 knots. When you
are close enough to the KC Tanker and match its speed, it will
release a fuel line - otherwise known as a 'boom'.
Press the ' key to open your aircraft's refuel access.
REFUELING THE EUROFIGHTER 2000
A fuel feeding tube is located at the front right-hand side of
the aircraft (you can see it if you use a Virtual or External
View). The trick is to fly so that the tube pokes into the end of
the boom released from the left-hand feeding station of the KC-10
Twin Boom Tanker. When you manage this, the boom will lock into
place and refueling will automatically occur. The normal fuel
feed rate is approximately 300 gallons per minute. The fuel gauge
shows the quantity of available fuel.
REFUELING THE F-22 AND F-117A
The pilot of an F-22 or F-117A has a far easier time refueling.
The refuel access is located at the rear of the aircraft,
directly behind the cockpit. The KC-135E Single Boom Tanker will
push a feeding probe into the back of your aircraft. All you have
to do is sit tight and keep your speed, heading and altitude
constant.
SECTION SIX
COMBAT
Combat has changed dramatically in aerial warfare over the last
60 years but some basic rules still apply. What follows is some
straightforward advice which should help you last longer in the
skies. But first ...
ARMING YOUR AIRCRAFT
Your aircraft is usually armed automatically, but there are times
when you get to choose the equipment, which is where the Aircraft
Arming Screen comes into use.
Your choice of weaponry will depend on the mission profile -
there's no point in wasting space carrying air-to-ground weapons
when bombing runs are not the order of the day. That said, it's
advisable to always carry a couple of defensive air-to-air
missiles when flying the F-22 or Eurofighter.
A miniature representation of your aircraft acts as a pointer
(note the way that any equipment added is also shown on the
pointer). Use the mouse to move the pointer around the screen.
Touch the tip of the pointer on the desired option or equipment.
(Use the slider to the right of the stock list to view the
available equipment.)
Press the left-hand mouse button to select an option or 'pick
up' a piece of equipment.
Press the left-hand mouse button when the pointer is not
touching an option or piece of equipment - the pointer will
disappear. You can now use the mouse to rotate the aircraft and
view it from all angles.
Press the right-hand mouse button to bring back the pointer.
Having 'picked up' a piece of equipment, the possible mounting
positions are highlighted on the aircraft (if none are shown then
the equipment cannot be carried by the aircraft in question or a
box will appear to inform you that no pylons are available for
that weapon). Move the equipment to the desired mounting. Note
the internal and external weight limitations.
Press the left-hand mouse button to place the equipment on the
mounting.
Press the right-hand mouse button to place the equipment back
in stock.
CLEAR ALL
Select this to remove all equipment from the aircraft.
CLEAR PYLON
Select this to change the pointer into a red 'eraser'. Now select
the equipment (on the aircraft) you wish to remove. Ensure that
you have a clear view of the aircraft's underside, to make the
removal of equipment easier.
Press the right-hand mouse button to bring back the pointer.
Press Escape to reset previous pylon selection.
If you don't want to call the shots you can always let the TFX
program make the choice of weapons for you ...
DEFAULT
Select this to load your aircraft with a selection of appropriate
equipment.
CURRENT SELECTION
Select this to view the underside of the aircraft - and all
equipment in position.
OK
Select this to proceed when you are happy with your choice of
equipment.
AIR-TO-AIR COMBAT
There are four key ways to keep tabs on the position of enemy
units: the map, radars, the HUD and visual contact.
The aircraft which is first detected by another is usually the
victim. Your superior radar capabilities should give you the
edge, so ensure that your weapons are armed and ready, and that
your speed, heading and altitude are good. Don't rely solely on
the radar though - use your eyes to scan the skies thoroughly at
all times.
Always approach the target from his blind spot - his rear quarter
- unless you have long range stand-off weapons such as AMRAAM or
AAM, in which case you should fire them at high speed (Mach 2
upwards) for maximum kinetic energy at launch.
If the element of surprise is lost, or was never possible, then
manoeuvrability will be the next deciding factor. The pilot who
can out-turn and gain the best advantage will be victorious,
especially in close range combat.
Fighter jets move so fast that it is hard to aim any weapon at an
enemy unless you are directly behind your target. The aim of any
close dogfighting is to get behind your enemy's tail ('on his
six') and keep him in front of you. If he can turn faster than
you, it will be much harder to do this.
AIR-TO-AIR TACTICS
Using available data from AWACS or your BVR radar, close in on
any potential bandit from a safe position. Long range tracking
will inform you of his speed, altitude, heading and range from
you.
20-60 MILES
Use long range semi-active 'fire and forget' radar-guided
missiles.
10-20 MILES
Use medium range radar-guided missiles.
1-10 MILES
Use short range radar-guided or infrared heat seeking missiles.
1 MILE OR LESS
Use the cannon. Missiles can find it difficult to launch, track
and arm in time.
AIR-TO-GROUND COMBAT
You can attempt to manually use your cannons and missiles to
destroy ground-based targets, but your best bet is to take
advantage of the Laser Target Designator wherever possible.
USING THE LASER TARGET DESIGNATOR
This nifty piece of kit allows you to accurately determine a GBU
bomb's destination to within inches of a target. It has a 100
mile radius range (but that doesn't mean that the bomb will
travel that far) and is best used from an altitude of around
6,000 ft.
The target appears on your radar. Soon you will make visual
contact. Prepare yourself ... Ensure that the aircraft is on a
level course before engaging the LTD - you don't want to end up
crashing.
Press the backspace key to select air-to-ground mode.
Press the Z key to activate the Laser Target Designator.
The view will change to show that of the Laser Target Designator
(Fig 4). The flashing 'T' above the crosshair shows that you have
yet to select a target.
A target is selected by directing a laser beam to illuminate it.
Press the arrow (Cursor) keys to move the crosshair.
Press the < key to zoom in and the > key to zoom out - up to 10
times magnification and down to zero.
Press the Z key to reset the zoom to default.
Press the Z key when the target is shown inside the lock.
The 'L' above the crosshair will flash instead of the 'T', to
show that you have locked on to a target. Are you sure that's
close enough?
Press the X key to break the lock.
Press any function (view) key to see the aircraft.
With the lock determined, a 'funnel' (invisible to the eye) is
created between your aircraft and the target. The computer-
controlled bomb will attempt to stay within the boundaries of the
funnel in order to hit its target. You may now launch a bomb.
DEFENSIVE MEASURES
MISSILE EVASION TECHNIQUES
All the major air forces of the world have infrared heat seeking
missiles, which lock on to your exhaust pipe, or radar-guided
missiles which aim for your radar-emitting cockpit and nose cone.
All are the most dangerous threats you will meet in the skies.
AVOIDING INFRARED MISSILES
You will know when an infrared missile is heading straight for
you because the missile warning panel will be flashing 'IR LCK'
and 'LCH' like crazy. This is not a good time to panic. Drop a
few decoy flares in the hope that they will appear more appealing
to the missile than your engines.
Ensure that your afterburners are off then perform a hard brake
and turn sharply into a defensive position. An infrared missile
has a narrow field of vision and can easily lose its lock once
your aircraft - its rear quarter in particular - is out of sight.
A last minute evasion may avoid the missile because it's heading
toward you at such a high speed and has no time to turn. However,
be warned that the latest infrared missiles are persistent and
will chase you until their fuel runs out.
AVOIDING RADAR-GUIDED MISSILES
These are tricky blighters, regardless of whether they are
launched in the air or from the ground. Dropping chaff will cloud
a radar-guided missile's vision giving you precious split-seconds
to perform a defensive break and get the hell out of there.
Unfortunately, it's far harder to break a radar-guided missile's
lock than it is an infrared's.
The other option open to you is to use Electronic Counter
Measures. The incoming radar-guided missile will weave
erratically as its guidance system is screwed up by the powerful
electronic pulses from your ECM pod.
ADVANCED COMBAT
The previous section of this manual deals with selection and use
of weapons, but there are some special aspects of manoeuvrability
which apply mainly to air-to-air combat.
Fighter jets move so fast that it is hard to aim any weapon at an
enemy unless you are directly behind your target. The objective
of any close dogfighting is to get behind your enemy's tail ('on
his six') and keep him in front of you. If he can turn faster
than you, it will be much harder to do this. There is an equation
for turn rate which will help you to win:
TURN RATE = a / V
where a is acceleration, which increases with the number of g's
you are pulling and V is speed.
So a higher g value and a lower speed will give you the best rate
of turn.
There is a limit to the number of g's a given fighter can pull
for any length of time in a level turn. In fact, there are three
limits:
THE LIFT LIMIT
The lower your speed, the less lift you can have. If you are
using all of your lift just to stay up, you cannot turn. So the
lift limit increases from 1g at the stall speed to ever higher
values.
THE POWER LIMIT
Lift causes more drag, and drag slows you down unless you
increase thrust to compensate. You only have so much thrust
available, and at high speeds, all your thrust is used just to
maintain those speeds in level flight. Therefore, the power limit
is more significant at higher speeds.
THE TOLERANCE LIMIT
The aircraft and the pilot can only sustain so much stress before
respectively falling apart or blacking out. Usually the aircraft
has a higher tolerance than the pilot, who can only stand about
9g. Some aircraft, like the F-117 A, have a lower structural
limit.
SECTION SEVEN
MAKING MISSIONS WITH UN CENTRAL COMMAND
It couldn't be simpler. Having selected this option you need to
pick one of the four possible hot spots from the world map - just
as you would for most other missions. Note that due to diplomatic
pressure, the South Atlantic environment is not available. UN
Central Command is now at your disposal ...
THE MAIN MENU
All UN Central Command options are chosen from here. As you will
see, keyboard short-cuts are available for some options. Select
the arrows on the right-hand side of the Main Menu to reveal
options above and below those shown.
CLEAR MISSION DATA
Select this followed by 'yes' to wipe the slate clean.
LOAD PREVIOUS MISSION
From the hard disk. Pick the mission's filename from the list
shown or select 'cancel'.
SAVE CURRENT MISSION
To the hard disk. Pick a slot, amend or type a new description if
necessary, then press the Enter key to save the mission.
PLAY MISSION
You must save it first (you will be reminded if the mission has
not been saved).
EXIT TO WORLD MAP
Select this if you wish to pick another hot spot. You will be
prompted if your mission has not been saved.
BUILDING A MISSION
You must use all of the following 'SELECT' options to construct a
mission. A tick next to the 'SELECT' options shows that it has
been dealt with.
SELECT PLANE
Choose any one of the three from the menu presented.
SELECT TAKE-OFF
Well, you have to start somewhere ... When this option is
selected, all possible takeoff points on the map will flash. Use
the mouse to move the crosshair around the map.
Press the right-hand mouse button at any time to return to the
Main Menu.
Press the left-hand mouse button to call up information on the
dot beneath
the crosshair.
The identity and map co-ordinates of the dot below the crosshair
are given. You can now select the dot as a takeoff point.
SELECT PRIMARY
There are eight possible Primary Target types: Maritime, Docks,
Factories, Power Stations, Bridges, Airfields, Military HQs and
Oil Targets. From the list, pick the targets you wish to
highlight on the map (they will flash). Note: it's wise not to
choose too many targets types at once as it can get confusing.
The process of selecting Primary Targets is the same as that for
choosing a takeoff point.
SELECT SECONDARY
Up to five targets are selected in the same way as the Primary
Targets.
SELECT LANDING
You have to land somewhere once your mission is complete. Select
a landing spot in the same way as you chose a takeoff point.
SELECT WEATHER
Choose from the menu presented any one of the following: 'DAY
CLEAR', 'DAY CLOUDY', 'NIGHT CLEAR', 'NIGHT CLOUDY', 'STORMY' and
'TWILIGHT' to determine the general weather conditions.
SELECT ENEMY
Not specific craft, you understand, but the intensity of enemy
presence. Choose 'LIGHT', 'MEDIUM' or 'HEAVY' from the menu
presented.
REVIEW WAYPOINTS
With all aspects of the mission in place, it's wise to double
check the waypoint situation. Select this option to review the
numbered waypoints (you know, the electronic markers used by the
auto pilot) step-by-step, from takeoff through primary and
secondary targets to landing. You will be prompted if any one of
the mission requirements is missing.
Maybe you'd like to add, remove or modify a waypoint? No problem
...
Use the right hand mouse button to go to Waypoint menu
Insert mode.
Delete mode.
Modify mode.
KC Tanker mid-air refueler.
EXIT the waypoint review and return to the Main Menu.
Use the mouse to move the crosshair over a waypoint.
Press the left-hand mouse button to select the waypoint.
Press the left-hand mouse button again to either 'pick up' the
waypoint or delete it, depending on the chosen mode.
Use the mouse to move the new or existing waypoint.
Press the left-hand mouse button to place the waypoint.
Press the right-hand mouse button to de-select the waypoint.
Play Mission: Press enter to play mission.
TEXT AT CURSOR
Basically, information on the dot beneath the crosshair is shown
in the top right-hand corner of the screen.
VIEW 3D
Or 2D for that matter. Toggle between a static Earth Net
Satellite plan view or a rotating three-dimensional view of the
area.
Press the V key to call up a satellite view of the area.
Press the left-hand mouse button or the 5 key on the numeric
keypad to toggle between the plan view and the rotating three-
dimensional view.
Press the right-hand mouse button or the Esc key to quit the
satellite view and return to the standard maps.
To move the satellite around the map ...
Press the 8 key on the numeric keypad to move the view up by
half a screen.
Press the 2 key on the numeric keypad to move the view down by
half a screen.
Press the 4 key on the numeric keypad to move the view left by
half a screen.
Press the 6 key on the numeric keypad to move the view right by
half a screen.
Note that the mouse can also be used to move the view.
The satellite's altitude is adjusted in large steps as follows
...
Press the 1 key to view the area from 800 feet (minimum
altitude).
Press the 2 key to view the area from 1,600 feet.
Press the 3 key to view the area from 3,200 feet.
Press the 4 key to view the area from 6,400 feet.
Press the 5 key to view the area from 8,000 feet.
Press the 6 key to view the area from 16,000 feet.
Press the 7 key to view the area from 32,000 feet.
Press the 8 key to view the area from 64,000 feet.
Press the 9 key to view the area from 96,000 feet.
Press the 0 key to view the area from 128,000 feet (maximum
altitude).
ZOOM MAP IN/OUT
The map as it stands provides a useful overview of the area, but
it's easier to select targets with a closer look. Note that this
zoom function does not work with the satellite map.
Press the Z key to toggle the zoom IN or OUT.
MAP - PHYSICAL
A relief map of the area - with all targets in place.
Press the F1 key to select the Physical Map.
MAP - AWAC
An electronic map of the area - as supplied by the AWAC - with
all targets in place.
Press the F2 key to select the AWAC Map.
MAP - POLITICAL
Shows clearly the country boundaries - with all targets in place.
Press the F3 key to select the Political Map.
SECTION EIGHT
CONTROL SUMMARY
Sure, there are dozens of key controls to learn - more than any
keyboard overlay could conveniently accommodate (hence its
omission from this package) - but the basic controls are simple
enough. The rest you will learn through bitter experience ...
BASIC CONTROLS
The aircraft climbs, dives and banks left and right via the
mouse, a joystick, or the arrow (cursor) keys on your computer's
keyboard.
The left-hand mouse button is used to increase thrust, and the
right-hand mouse button is used to decrease thrust.
ENGINES
All three aircraft flown in TFX are powered by two engines.
Press the + key to increase the engines' thrust.
Press the - key to decrease the engines' thrust.
Press the [ key to ignite or shut down Engine 1.
Press the ] key to ignite or shut down Engine 2.
AFTERBURNERS
Just the thing for an instant burst of extra power. The
Eurofighter 2000 and the F-22 Superstar have four stages of
afterburner strength while the F-117A has - oh dear - none.
Afterburners are heavy on the fuel, so use them frugally.
Press the j key on the numeric keypad to increase the
afterburner by one stage.
Press the - key on the numeric keypad to decrease the
afterburner by one stage.
Press the / key on the numeric keypad to turn off the
afterburner.
AUTO PILOT
Once the auto pilot is engaged, there are four modes of operation
available. For further details see THE AUTO PILOT on page 25.
Press the A key to toggle the auto pilot ON or OFF.
Press the 7 key for auto pilot mode 1.
Press the 8 key for auto pilot mode 2.
Press the 9 key for auto pilot mode 3.
Press the 0 key for auto pilot mode 4.
AUTO LAND
Sit back, take it easy and let your on-board computer fly you to
the nearest friendly runway or your final waypoint and perform
the landing for you.
Press and hold an Alt key then press the L key to activate the
computer-controlled landing.
PANIC RECOVERY BUTTON
Look, it happens to the best of us in combat situations. When the
going gets a little too heavy and you lose it - and control of
your aircraft - and find yourself plummeting to the ground, this
computer-controlled function will do its best to put you
straight.
Press the tab key to activate the computer-controlled recovery.
LANDING SYSTEMS
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)
A useful aid for landing your aircraft. For further details, see
THE INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM on page 23.
Press the I key to turn on the ILS. Once the ILS mode has been
selected by pressing "I" again, it is possible to find runways
easier by pressing "m" for map view and any available runways or
airfields will flash white on the map.
LANDING GEAR
It's best to land with it down! Note that the Landing Gear may be
damaged if it's down when your aircraft is flying at high speed.
Press the G key to toggle the landing gear UP or DOWN.
BRAKES
Each aircraft flown in TFX has three brake systems. The brake
parachute works either on the ground or in the air but is ideally
used to land on a short runway. Remember to turn off your Wheel
Brakes when powering up to takeoff speed - they may be damaged if
the rpm exceeds 70 per cent.
Press the W key to toggle the wheel brakes ON or OFF.
Press the B key to toggle the air brake ON or OFF.
Press and hold an Alt key then press the B key to deploy the
brake chute.
Press and hold the left-hand shift key then press the B key to
release the chute.
ARRESTER HOOK
Located at the rear of the aircraft and used to catch and
Arrester Wire - either on aircraft carriers or normal runways (in
emergencies) - in order to slow the aircraft to a halt (for
further details see LANDING on page 30).
Press the H key to toggle the arrester hook UP or DOWN.
NAVIGATION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS
THE HEAD-UP DISPLAY
The HUD is basically a reflection of the aircraft's main
instrumentation reflected onto the windshield, so saving pilots
the inconvenience of taking their eyes off whatever's ahead. TFX
also features a fundamental helmet-based HUD. For further
details, see THE HEAD-UP DISPLAY on page 18.
Press and hold an Alt key then press the H key to toggle the
HUD ON or OFF.
TARGET LOCK Your aircraft can track up to 10 targets at once.
Press the C key to toggle the lock between targets.
THE MAP
A complete overview of your surroundings. Different colored dots
represent enemy and friendly installations and airborne craft.
For further details, see THE MAP on page 14.
Press the M key to toggle the map ON or OFF.
THE MULTI-FUNCTION DISPLAYS
Each aircraft has three MFDs from which a wealth of information
is easily accessed. For further details, see MULTI-FUNCTION
DISPLAYS on page 14.
Press the 1 key to cycle through MFD1.
Press the 2 key to cycle through MFD2.
Press the 3 key to cycle through MFD3.
TOGGLE TARGET VIEWS
Accessed through MFD1.
Press the N key to switch between target views.
THE MFD RADAR
A simplified overview of the friendly and enemy units in the
vicinity. For further details, see THE MULTI-FUNCTION DISPLAY
RADAR on page 16.
Press the R key to switch the radar range between 50 miles, 30
miles, 10 miles and 2 miles.
MESSAGES
Communications from AWACS, control towers, your on-board computer
and other pilots appear frequently. Take note of what's said.
Press the L key to display the last displayed message.
INFRARED NIGHT SIGHT
Yes, you too can see in the dark without the aid of carrots.
Press and hold the left-hand shift key then press the N key to
toggle the infrared night sight ON or OFF.
WEAPON SELECTION
Select the weapon type: air-to-air, air-to-ground or cannons.
Note that the HUD will change to reflect the selection.
Press the Enter key to select air-to-air weapons.
Press the Enter key again to switch between the different types
of air-to-air missiles.
Press the backspace key to select air-to-ground weapons.
Press the right-hand Control key to select cannons (and change
the HUD to navigation mode).
Press the spacebar to fire the selected weapon.
THE LASER TARGET DESIGNATOR
Used to guide GBU air-to-ground missiles to their targets. For
further details, see USING THE LASER TARGET DESIGNATOR on page
38.
Press the Z key to activate the Laser Target Designator.
Press the arrow (cursor) keys to move the crosshair.
Press the < key to zoom in and the > key to zoom out.
Press the Z key when the target is shown inside the lock.
Press the X key to break the lock.
Press any function (view) key to see the aircraft.
DEFENSIVE SYSTEMS
CHAFF
Literally little pieces of tin foil which confuse the hell out of
radar-guided missiles. Note that chaff is always in limited
supply, regardless of the play option.
Press the Insert key to release chaff.
FLARES
Used to confuse heat-seeking missiles. Note that flares are
always in limited supply, regardless of the play option.
Press the Delete key to release flares.
ECM
Electronic Counter Measure. The aircraft lights up like a
Christmas tree to every radar and tracking device within 200
miles so use it only when you have been detected. It confuses any
radar tracking devices. ECM works in two ways: it gives inbound
radar-guided missiles a nervous fit - as they attempt to home in
they shake violently and cannot manoeuvre fast enough. It also
prevents or makes it more difficult for the enemy fighter to lock
a missile on to you.
Press the E key to emit ECM.
STEALTH
Effectively the opposite of ECM. Your aircraft becomes 'passive',
receiving but not emitting signals, which makes it almost
invisible on radar.
Press the S key to activate stealth mode.
OTHER SYSTEMS
EJECT
When it all goes horribly wrong and death is on line, why settle
for anything less than survival? (Well, there is a great danger
of being captured if you eject over enemy territory.)
Press the Esc key TWICE to eject from your aircraft. Note that
your descent can be controlled to a limited degree.
Please note: eject wisely. Should you decide to ditch the
aircraft in a situation which is not life threatening, you risk
Court Martial proceedings for destroying $100 million worth of
hardware.
JETTISON
Your aircraft's fuel tank and air-to-ground stores can become a
liability in certain situations. For example, when using the
Military Specification flight model, the added weight makes your
aircraft more cumbersome in air-to-air combat. With the loss of
weight you gain maneuverability. Just try not to drop your load
on innocent civilians.
Press and hold an Alt key then press the J key to jettison your
aircraft's fuel tank and air-to-ground stores.
REFUEL ACCESS
It needs to be open if you are to refuel in mid-air. For further
details, see REFUELING on page 33.
Press the ' key to open your aircraft's refuel access.
WEATHER CONDITIONS
Sometimes you need to know whether the weather is good or bad.
Press an Alt key then press the W key to call up the weather
conditions in the Internal Communications area.
SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
PAUSE
Maybe you want to answer the door or the call of nature ...
Press the P key to freeze the action.
Press any key to resume play.
TFX CONFIGURATION
Adjust pertinent play details (for further details see TFX
CONFIGURATION on page 2).
Press the ` (above tab key) key to call up the preferences
screen.
VIDEO RECORDER
A state-of-the-art system used to record the action as you see
it. Any footage of 3D action will be broadcast immediately after
the mission at a special television press conference - so make it
look good!
Press and hold the left-hand Alt key then press the V key to
toggle the video recorder ON or OFF.
Note: there may be a slight pause as the video footage is written
to the hard disk. If hard disk space is limited, keep the footage
short and sweet.
ACCELERATED TIME
Lengthy flights across barren terrain can prove a real drag. To
compensate for this, time itself can be increased by a factor of
10. Note that everything in the TFX world will speed up -
including your aircraft's handling and the enemy's movements!
Press the T key to toggle accelerated time ON or OFF.
QUIT
Without dying - but only if your mission is complete.
Press and hold the left-hand shift key then press the Q key to
quit play.
VIEW CONTROLS
An unprecedented number of possible viewpoints are on offer ...
INTERNAL VIEWS
From the cockpit.
Press the F1 key for a fixed forward view - with full
instrumentation.
Press the Page Up key to move the cockpit UP.
Press the Page Down key to move the cockpit DOWN.
Press the F2 key to swing the view to the left (in 60 degree
steps).
Press the F3 key to swing the view to the right (in 60 degree
steps).
Press the F4 key to look behind you.
Press and hold the right-hand shift key and then press the F1
key for a full forward view
- without instrumentation.
VIRTUAL COCKPIT VIEWS
A step further than the standard internal views ... You can view
the cockpit as though you were sitting in it for real. Sure, the
control panel cannot be read, and it can all prove a little
disorientating at first, but the benefits will become clear ...
Press the F10 key for a Virtual Cockpit View.
Press and hold the right-hand shift key then press the arrow
(cursor) keys to look around the cockpit.
EXTERNAL VIEWS
There's nothing more exhilarating than viewing your aircraft's
performance through an external 'camera'. Your aircraft's
altitude, speed and heading are shown in a panel at the bottom of
the screen.
Press the D key to toggle the flight details ON or OFF.
Press the F6 key for a 'fly-past' view of your aircraft.
Press the F5 key to view the aircraft from behind.
Press the F5 key a second time to pull the view back. You can
now pan the 'camera' around the aircraft.
Press and hold the right-hand shift key then press any of the
following keys...
Press the arrow (cursor) keys to pan the 'camera' around the
aircraft.
Press the End key to zoom out.
Press the Home key to zoom in.
Press the Page Up key to rotate the view to the left.
Press the Page Down key to rotate the view to the right.
WEAPON VIEWPOINTS
Some of the most impressive views are those from behind or inside
weapons.
Press the F8 key to follow cannon-fire or a missile.
Press the F8 key TWICE for an infrared missile's-eye view.
ENEMY VIEWPOINTS
It's kinda handy (and fun) to keep tabs on your position relative
to the enemy's.
Press the F7 key to view your aircraft and the enemy airborne
or ground-based craft you are tracking - on the same screen, no
less.
TARGET VIEW
An external view of the area near your selected target, be it
airborne or ground-based. This view also shows your aircraft's
refuel access when refueling or the runway or the carrier when
using the ILS.
Press the F9 key for a target view.
APPENDIX ONE
MISSION PROFILES
It is often thought that fighter aircraft tackle seven distinct
types of mission. They are as follows:
INTERCEPTION
You have been scrambled to meet incoming hostiles. Stop them at
all costs.
AIR SUPERIORITY
Win control of the sky by taking out all airborne enemy craft in
the area.
ANTI-ARMOUR
Use multiple 'bomblettes' against heavily-armoured tanks and
vehicles.
CLOSE AIR SUPPORT
Provide air cover for ground-based troops.
INTERDICTION
Destroy a fixed ground target, be it a bridge or a factory. This
is the most common mission you will encounter. Most missions for
the F-117A are of the Interdiction variety.
DEFENSE SUPPRESSION
Destroy ground-based targets such as SAM radars and SAM sites.
MARITIME
A battle over the water against ships or carrier-based
operations.
TFX caters for all seven mission profiles. Be warned that often
you will need to complete more than one mission profile at the
same time.
The TFX environment is a vast, fully realized portion of the
world's potential and actual trouble spots. All terrain is
accurately mapped and the world as a whole remains consistent
between missions (so anything destroyed stays destroyed). The TFX
environment is split into five distinct 'climes' which
incorporate specific missions to test your mettle.
SOMALIA
Operation Restore Hope II.
Famine is rife once again and General Mohammed Aideed's warlords
are on the war-path. It's time for the UN to sort out this
horrific situation once and for all. Can you crush the oppressors
to allow relief convoys to move in?
COLOMBIA
The Drugs War.
The government has been ousted and civil war is raging between
the new force (the drug cartels) and those loyal to the former
regime. Normally the UN doesn't get involved in such internal
messes, but this time the possibility of a drugs explosion has
far-reaching, world-wide consequences.
LIBYA
Saddam Hussein has denied access to inspectors in search of proof
of nuclear weapons production. It's down to the UN to make him
see sense.
YUGOSLAVIA
The Balklands is still the tinderbox of Europe, and war has
exploded again as the armies of Serbia and Croatia attempt to
carve up Bosnia and besiege the UN-declared safe havens.
THE SOUTH ATLANTIC
Somewhere around South Georgia ... In 1999 the biggest oil
discovery the world has ever seen has resulted in neighboring
countries clambering to make claims. England and Argentina have
sovereign rights but the South Americans want the oil so badly
they will even go to war for it. To make matters worse, a ship
carrying enough plutonium to produce 200 heavyweight nuclear
bombs has gone missing in the area. The UN have been called in to
find out what's going on ... and maybe wage battle against
whatever lies in wait.
APPENDIX TWO
ELEMENTS OF AN AIRPLANE
WINGS
The wings are there to create lift. In a fighter, they are
usually swept back to reduce drag at high Mach numbers.
TAILPLANE
Or horizontal tail. Stabilizes the aircraft, by creating a nose
down moment at high angles of attack. It is also used to control
pitching (see ELEVATORS).
TAILFIN
Or vertical tail, stabilizes the aircraft, by creating a yawing
moment when the aircraft is side-slipping. It is also used for
steering (see RUDDER).
CONTROL SURFACES
AILERONS
These are parts of the wing on the trailing edge, hinged so as to
be mobile, which are deflected in opposite directions to roll the
aircraft, by increasing lift on one wing and decreasing it on the
other.
ELEVATORS
These are usually located on the tailplane. Often, they are the
tailplane. The elevators create a pitching moment to change angle
of attack or maneuver the aircraft.
RUDDER
This is usually a hinged surface on the trailing edge of the
tailfin, which is used to steer the aircraft at low speed and to
co-ordinate turns and to control rolling at high angles of
attack.
HIGH LIFT DEVICES
FLAPS
Like ailerons, these can be on the trailing edge of the wing, but
are used to increase lift overall and increase the maximum lift.
They are used to reduce take-off and landing speed and distance.
Deployed flaps increase drag, and so are retracted at higher
speeds. Many airplanes have leading edge flaps which increase
maximum lift, although they slightly decrease the lift at any
given angle of attack.
SLATS
These extendible devices take the place of leading edge flaps,
delaying stall at high angles of attack.
ENGINES
The jet engine is a device which takes in air, propels it to high
speed, and ejects it at the back, producing thrust. There are two
main kinds:
TURBO-JET
Takes in air at the front, compresses it, and burns fuel inside a
combustion chamber. The hot, high speed jet of gas drives a
turbine (hence 'turbo'), a windmill-like rotor at the back, which
powers the compressor, which is like a many-bladed propeller, and
leaves from the nozzle, accelerating to supersonic velocities.
TURBO-FAN
Puts only a proportion of the compressed air into the combustion
chamber - the rest flows around the outside of the combustion
chamber and meets with the jet flow after the turbine. A turbo-
fan is more efficient than an equivalent turbo-jet, but produces
less thrust.
Almost all modern jet engines are turbo-fans, but the new high
thrust engines which will power the F-22 and Eurofighter 2000 are
turbo-fans with low bypass ratios, meaning that most of the air
flows through the combustion chamber.
AFTERBURNER
For extra thrust in certain situations, more fuel is put into the
mixture than can be burned in the combustion chamber. When it
meets the outside air in the nozzle, the fuel is lit, producing
very high thrust, at the expense of high fuel consumption. The
system which does this is called an afterburner, and the effects
can often be seen as a visible flame coming from the nozzles.
UNDERCARRIAGE
Or landing gear. A set of wheels put down for landing to support
the aircraft on the runway. It must be retracted at higher speeds
in the air as it causes drag and is not designed for high speed
flight.
THE ELEMENTS OF AN AIRPLANE IN TFX
All of the above elements are modeled in TFX in terms of their
effects on the force and turning characteristics of the
airplanes. For example, moving the joystick (or mouse) up and
down (or pressing the up and down arrow keys) adjusts the
elevator position. This affects the angle of attack, which in
turn affects wing lift and thus maneuver the aircraft.
APPENDIX THREE
THE TFX AIRCRAFT
All three aircraft in TFX are high performance vehicles with a
great deal of money and research invested in them. At the time of
writing, the Eurofighter 2000 and the F-22 have yet to fly. Much
information about the F-117/A is still classified. However, from
the published data, it has been possible to estimate key aspects
of each vehicle's performance.
EUROFIGHTER 2000
SUPPLIER
Eurofighter Jagdflugzeug GmbH
TYPE
Light, highly agile, foreplane configured air-to-air fighter
Secondary air-to-ground capability
Some stealth characteristics
ENGINES
2 Eurojet EJ 200 Afterburning Turbofans
SEA LEVEL RATED THRUST
90 kN (Afterburning)
60 kN (Military Power)
THRUST VECTORING
+/- 20 (Vertically)
DIMENSIONS
LENGTH
47.85 ft.
HEIGHT
13.2 ft.
WING AREA
540 sq. ft.
WING SPAN
34.65 ft.
FOREPLANE AREA
26 sq. ft.
WEIGHTS
OPERATING EMPTY
21,450 lbs.
MAX. TAKEOFF
46,200 lbs.
INTERNAL FUEL
8,800 lbs.
EXTERNAL STORES
14,300 lbs.
ENVELOPE
MAX. LEVEL SPEED
Mach 2 (At Altitude)
TAKEOFF SPEED
135 knots *
LANDING SPEED
125 knots *
CRUISING SPEED
510 knots *
CRUISING ALTITUDE
46,000 ft *
TAKEOFF/LANDING RUN
500 m
COMBAT RADIUS
500 nm (nautical miles)
STALLING SPEED
99 knots (Sea Level) *
MAX. AoA
22.5
G LIMITS
9, -3
* Own Estimates
TFX PILOTS' NOTES
Handling is 'carefree', with many automatic safety features:
landing gear auto-retracts at high speed, angle of attack is
limited automatically, and a 'panic button' initiates recovery to
level flight in emergencies. Leading edge slats and trailing edge
flaps are adjusted automatically for optimum benefit. External
stores increase drag, roll inertia and mass.
DEVELOPMENT HISTORY
Since the war, the price of developing a combat aircraft has
steadily risen, with the effect that fewer and fewer companies
have been involved in their production, and almost none have been
built recently without government funding. In Europe, only France
and Sweden have continued to build fighters, with often state-
owned companies surviving on exports.
Some European countries have bought US airplanes, like the
Phantom and the F-16. Others have joined forces. Companies from
the UK, Germany and Italy formed Panavia in the 1970s to develop
the Tornado strike aircraft for the three nations. The lack of a
dedicated fighter has led to the Tornado's adaptation to serve in
the air-to-air role, but the Panavia partners - Aeritalia,
British Aerospace and MBB - seeing in 1982 that the requirement
for dogfighting capability in a modern air force would continue,
proposed a new one-man fighter, the Agile Combat Aircraft (ACA),
a canard-configured, twin-finned aircraft.
The ACA was never given the go-ahead, but in 1983, France,
Germany, the UK, Italy and Spain outlined a joint requirement for
a new combat aircraft, to enter service in the 1990s. It was to
be called the European Fighter Aircraft (EFA). Towards its
development, the British government funded a technology
demonstration aircraft, the Experimental Aircraft Programme
(EAP), built by BAe and Aeritalia. Not strictly a prototype, the
EAP was a research vehicle for the technologies involved in the
EFA programme.
France withdrew from the EFA programme in 1985, and in 1992,
Germany threatened to do the same but was convinced by the
remaining nations to remain, although the German aircraft will
lack some of the systems present in the other airplanes, and more
of the funding will come from industry. Following the four-nation
meeting on December 10th, 1992, the name EFA was dropped ... The
aircraft was to be called the Eurofighter 2000.
CONFIGURATION
The Eurofighter 2000 has a canard configuration, meaning that the
'tail' is mounted forward of the main wings. This is inherently
unstable, for the following reason:
In a normal fighter, the all-moving tail is used to pitch the
aircraft up and down. Deflecting the tail down gives it a
negative angle of attack, and thus a downward force, which turns
the whole aircraft nose-up. As this happens, the initial
deflection of the tail is offset by the overall motion of the
aircraft, and so the pitching force is reduced, as the aircraft
moves to a higher, stable angle of attack.
If the tail is at the front, it is turned upwards to create a
nose-up pitch, and the resulting motion increases the force on
the canard, so then in order to stabilize the higher AoA, the
canards must be deflected entirely the other way, or the whole
aircraft will pitch up into a stall.
The advantages of the canard are that it is never in the wake of
the wing, and so retains its effectiveness at high angles of
attack. A canard configured airplane can have less afterbody
(tail-end) drag than an equivalent aft-tailed version. The canard
can be smaller than a tail would need to be, as demonstrated in
the 2000's tiny 25.9 sq. ft. canard area.
Only now, with the advent of digital flight control systems
(DFCS) can the canard be used as a means of control. Even so, a
spokesman for the company which pioneered unstable, computer
controlled fighters is reported to have said: "In the view of
General Dynamics, the optimum location of a canard is on somebody
else's airplane."
In spite of this obvious difference, detractors have described
the Eurofighter 2000 as 'F-16 Plus'. In the same weight
class as General Dynamics' (now Lockheed Fort Worth) successful
fighter, the Eurofighter has a much larger wing, at 165 ft., and
with two 90 kN (kilo Newton) engines, compared to F-16's single
122 kN, the Eurofighter has more power for maneuvering.
The Eurofighter will have a variable shape mission adaptive wing
(MAW), using slats and flaps.
The fighter will have a 'glass cockpit' of modern design, with
three MFDs. Most versions will have a helmet mounted
targeting system, and direct voice input (DVI) for non-critical
functions.
LOCKHEED F-117A STEALTH FIGHTER
SUPPLIER
Lockheed Advanced Development Company (LADC)
TYPE
Very low radar cross-section night attack aircraft
Low IR emissions
ENGINES
2 Non-Afterburning General Electric F404-GE-F1D2 Turbofans
SEA LEVEL RATED THRUST
48 kN (Military Power)
DIMENSIONS
LENGTH
66.26 ft.
HEIGHT
12.47 ft.
WING AREA
1,143.72 sq. ft.
WING SPAN
43.56 ft.
WEIGHTS
OPERATING EMPTY
29,937.6 lbs.
MAX. TAKEOFF
52,390.8 lbs.
INTERNAL FUEL
17,463.6 lbs
INTERNAL STORES
4,989.60 lbs.
ENVELOPE
MAX. LEVEL SPEED
Mach 0.85
TAKEOFF SPEED
180 knots
LANDING SPEED
155 knots
MAX. LANDING VSI
12 ft/s
TAKEOFF/LANDING RUN
1,400 m
CRUISING SPEED
480 knots *
CRUISING ALTITUDE
46,000 ft *
MISSION RADIUS
600 nm (Unrefueled)
STALLING SPEED
101 knots (Sea Level) *
MAX. AoA
41
G LIMIT
+6
* Own Estimates
TFX PILOTS' NOTES
The F-117A has no high-lift devices and low CLa (increase of lift
with AoA) so at all speeds, angle of attack will be positive for
level flight. Stalling characteristics are highly unpredictable.
Never stall the F-117A. Maneuverability is low and flight is
subsonic.
Landing is complicated by a high AoA which means that the pilot
can lose sight of the runway. Furthermore, as landing speed is
high, always deploy brake chute on landing, but never before
touchdown.
DEVELOPMENT HISTORY
Another development since World War II is that radar has created
an open battle field for aircraft. Any attack in enemy territory
involved the risk of being detected early - in fact, in the late
60s, the risk was a certainty, without an extensive array of
radar jamming equipment, radar warning devices and chaff-bombs.
Often, these were carried by other aircraft, with strike aircraft
headed for the primary target, and the majority of the aircraft
in a mission acting as defense-suppression aircraft.
Jamming techniques struggled, and often failed, to keep up with
new radar technology. Radar absorbent materials (RAM) were being
developed, but did not in themselves provide the necessary
reduction in radar cross-section (RCS) to be of real benefit.
Some engineers envisaged a more comprehensive solution. In 1975,
the US Air Force held a Radar Camouflage Symposium, the
proceedings of which have not yet been declassified. The same
year, Engineers at Lockheed's 'Skunk Works' designed an aircraft
with hardly any curved surfaces at all. The simple concept was
that a sharp edge reflects much less radiation than a rounded
surface. The trick was in predicting every possible path of
reflected radiation from its source to the aircraft to its final
direction, and this was only possible with the new computer
technology becoming available in the late 70s.
After some tests on the basic shape, Lockheed obtained funding
from the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) for two
sub-scale flying prototypes of a stealth attack aircraft. Code
named, Have Blue, the project went ahead, after control was
transferred for security reasons from the civilian DARPA to the
USAF. Little was heard publicly of stealth until the mid 80s.
The first Have Blue prototype flew in early 1978, testing flying
characteristics. The second was given the complete stealth
treatment, with RAMs and tightly-fitted panels, for tests against
captured Soviet radar-guided missiles and other threats. The
first prototype was lost in a crash due to a high vertical speed
on final approach, but the second went on to prove the capability
of a nearly radar invisible design, before itself crashing.
The full-scale development program was code-named Senior Trend,
and a full-size F-117A was flown on June 18th 1982. The aircraft
is not known to have an official name, but is variously known as
Stealth Fighter, Nighthawk, and Black Jet. The Groom Lake
development testing team named it the Scorpion.
CONFIGURATION
The F-117A was designed to resolve two conflicting requirements -
stealth and the ability to fly - but does so very well.
Inevitably unstable in all three axes, it is made 'flyable' by a
GEC Astronics flight control system, as used by the F-16.
The faceted shape is not ideal for smooth airflow, but there are
advantages. Use is made of 'vortex lift', whereby low pressure
vortices are formed over the wing and body at high angles of
attack, augmenting lift. The high sweepback is necessary, because
due to aerodynamic and structural demands, the leading edges of
the wings must have appreciable curvature. This means that they
will reflect radar, but the sweepback ensures that they reflect a
frontal radar signal sharply away from the source.
The sharply swept wing behaves in some ways like a delta,
especially at low speeds, when, due to the low aspect ratio and
lack of any high-lift devices, high angles of attack are
necessary. This is one reason for the unusually high take-off and
landing speeds.
LOCKHEAD F-22 SUPERSTAR
SUPPLIER
Lockheed Advanced Development Company (LADC)
TYPE
Large, stealth-capable air superiority fighter
Secondary ground attack role
ENGINES
2 Pratt & Whitney F119-PW-100 Turbofans
SEA LEVEL RATED THRUST
155 kN (Afterburning)
111 kN (Military Power)
THRUST VECTORING
+/- 20 (Vertically)
DIMENSIONS
LENGTH
62.44 ft.
HEIGHT
16.5 ft.
WING AREA
842.4 sq. ft.
WING SPAN
44.75 ft.
TAILPLANE AREA
136.4 sq. ft.
FIN AREA
178.63 sq. ft.
WEIGHTS
OPERATING EMPTY
29,937.6 lbs.
MAX. TAKEOFF
59,875.2 lbs.
INTERNAL FUEL
21,953.8 lbs.
INTERNAL STORES
7,981.6 lbs.
ENVELOPE
MAX. LEVEL SPEED
Mach 2.30 (At Altitude)
SUPERCRUISE
Mach 1.58 (At Altitude)
TAKEOFF SPEED
135 knots *
LANDING SPEED
125 knots *
MAX. LANDING VSI
10 ft/s
TAKEOFF/LANDING RUN
3521 ft.
CRUISING SPEED
675 knots *
CRUISING ALTITUDE
59,000 ft *
COMBAT RADIUS
800 nm (nautical miles)
STALLING SPEED
95 knots (Sea Level)
MAX. AoA
22.50
G LIMIT
+9
* Own Estimates
NB: All above data refers to production land-based F-22A.
TFX PILOTS' NOTES
Landing gear is likely to be 'hard-wired' (manually controlled)
as on the prototype. Handling will be 'carefree'. Effects of
internal stores should be minimal, apart from increase in weight.
DEVELOPMENT HISTORY
In the 1950s, supersonic fighters first appeared in large
numbers. They had engines which stretched from nose to tail, to
produce enough thrust to exceed the sound barrier, with stubby
swept or delta wings to minimize drag. It was found that although
crossing Mach 1 took tremendous energy, little more was required
to push the fighter to Mach 2 and beyond.
In the US, speed was increasingly seen as the fighter's best
asset, to the cost of maneuverability and visibility. Lockheed's
Starfighter was an example, its high tail proving inadequate at
high angles of attack. In Vietnam, only McDonnell's F-4 Phantom
II was consistently successful. It was learned (or re-learned)
that even in the missile age, combat often came down to out-
turning the enemy and bringing cannon to bear. The US Air Force
outlined its new requirements in the FX program. The new fighter
was to have no greater a maximum speed than the Phantom, but
greater range, and vitally, it was to be agile. The winner,
McDonnell Douglas' F-15, was the first modern fighter, with a
massive wing and the engine power to overcome the drag entailed,
not by higher Mach numbers, but the lift-dependent drag of fast
turning.
In the early 1980s, when the Reagan administration required work
to begin on what was called an Advanced Tactical Fighter, the
industry and the USAF outlined the requirements in the light of
current technological developments. The ATF was to be a counter-
air fighter with supersonic cruise (supercruise), Short Take-Off
and Landing (STOL) capability, and a high combat radius. The F-
117A was still a close secret, but the prospect of low
observability for a fighter was proposed by Northrop among
others. The ATF was to have 'low observables' if possible.
Alongside the Air Force program, the US Navy agreed in 1986 to
consider a naval version of the ATF (NATF) as a replacement for
the mainly air-to-air Grumman F-14.
Years previously, Northrop had a competing design to Lockheed's
F-117A, similarly faceted, but with a single intake and delta
wing. When the F-117A was being tested at Groom, another Northrop
stealth airplane, this time without major visible faceting, was
also under test. Possibly, new supercomputer systems made it
possible to predict the radar response behavior of much more
complex shapes, such as Northrop's later B-2 Stealth Bomber.
Lockheed too believed in the concept of a true stealth fighter.
Of the seven proposals submitted, Lockheed's and Northrop's were
considered by the USAF to be the best.
Lockheed, General Dynamics and Boeing agreed to work together if
any of them won the contract. Northrop and McDonnell Douglas also
agreed to co-operate. The two leading designs were designated YF-
22 and YF-23, the Y prefix denoting a combination of new and
established technology. Two prototypes of each were to be built
and evaluated, in conjunction with flight testing of the two
competing ATF engines, the Pratt and Whitney YF-119 and the
General Electric YF-120.
Engine technology was crucial to ATF. For the new challenge of
supersonic cruise without afterburner, the low-bypass turbofans
were to be in the unprecedented 156 kN thrust range, with a very
high proportion available on military power. In the original ATF
specification, vertical thrust vectoring was required for
manoeuvrability and STOL capability. The result was that the
engines had two-dimensional (rectangular) exhaust nozzles, which
vectored 20 degrees in either direction. The thrust reversal
requirement was deleted, and STOL and thrust vectoring soon
followed. However Lockheed decided to include vectoring in their
prototype, the YF-22.
The Demonstration-Validation (Dem-Val) program required each team
to state predicted performance of their aircraft, and validate
the data in flight. The YF-23 flew first, the design revealed for
the first time. A long, sleek structure, reminiscent of
Lockheed's SR-71, the YF-23 made use of Northrop's 'seamless'
stealth design philosophy.
By contrast, the YF-22 was shorter and more conventional, looking
much like a stealthy F-15, which may have been what the Air
Force was looking for. Tested to a 60 degrees angle of attack,
and, contrary to some reports, to beyond Mach 2, the YF-22 was
sold as a super-maneuverable dogfighter. It is thought unlikely
that the YF-23 was as agile in pitch as its rival, although
according to YF-22 test pilot Tom Morgenfeld, it may have been a
little faster in supercruise.
The USAF never made clear their criteria for selection, but the
YF-22 was chosen for development as the production ATF, now to be
called the F-22. Pratt and Whitney's YF-119 won the engine
contract. The Naval ATF, if it goes ahead, may not be based on
the same prototype as the Air Force version. Lockheed's own
design has major differences, including a larger wing, presumably
for lower landing speeds. The landing gear and overall structure
will have to be stronger, and stealth will be less of a priority
for strike escort and carrier protection.
CONFIGURATION
The F-22 will be the US Air Force's largest fighter yet, with a
842.4 sq. ft. wing area. All weapons are carried internally for
stealth. Also due to the requirements of stealth, there are no
vertical surfaces, which show up well on radar, so the fins are
canted outward at 28 degrees. For stability, the fins will be
very large, but not as large as those on the prototype. The sharp
breaks or 'chines' on the sides of the nose are also due to this
requirement.
The final version will have a modified tailplane, a lower
profile, and wings cut off at the outer trailing edge, to reduce
the formation of vortices. It will have a leading edge sweep of
42 degrees, as opposed to 48 degrees in the prototype. It will
also have a lower profile and a blunter nose. There will be no
air brake on production F-22s.
The unique canopy, with no spars, will be retained, giving the F-
22 unprecedented visibility for a fighter.
The large trailing edge flaps are to be modified in shape, with
the inboard and outboard flaperons having constant chord
(forward length). Together with the leading edge flaps,
these will form a Mission Adaptive Wing (MAW) as seen on the F-16
and Eurofighter 2000.
APPENDIX FOUR
TFX WEAPON SPECIFICATIONS
M61B CANNON
A modified version of General Electric's M61A1 is fitted to the
F-22 Superstar and the Eurofighter 2000 (which is usually fitted
with the heavier but otherwise identical 27 mm Mauser Cannon).
Note that the F-117A has no cannon. The M61B has 1760 rounds and
can fire high velocity 20 mm shells at 6,000 rounds per minute.
It is suitable for both air-to-air (dogfighting) and air-to-
ground (strafing) situations (the mode is automatically
selected). In dogfight mode (DGFT) the moving aiming reticle
predicts the enemy plane position by using the aircrafts radar to
determine speed and distance so to obtain the best probability
for a kill.
The dogfight reticle is split into 4 quarters each quarter shows
the range of the fighter you are tracking in units of 1000 ft.
from your aircraft. Each quarter will broaden dependent on the
distance between you and the fighter. The more broad the circle
becomes the closer the target.
In STRF mode the aiming reticle is fixed in the center of the hud
and the area inside the ring shows the impact point of the
cannon.
RANGE-1.24 miles
WEIGHT-191.4 lbs.
SPEED-N/A
DRAG FACTOR-N/A
AIR-TO-AIR WEAPONS
AIML AND AIM 9S SIDEWINDER
is an infared guided missile with a short range that locks onto
the hot gas trail left by the target aircraft. The AIM 9L is the
latest generation of the Sidewinder family and the seeker is
capable of hitting the target at all aspects. The AIM9S is
smaller and faster and more manouverable than the SL but with a
smaller seeker suitable for rear aspect hits.
ASRAAM
The infrared-guided Advanced Short Range Air-to-Air Missile can
obtain a lock on the target aircraft from any angle. It is
intended for use in close air combat.
AMRAAM
The radar-guided Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air missile can
lock on to an aircraft up to 29.76 miles away. The missile's so-
called Beyond Visual Range targeting makes it a formidable
weapon.
AAAM
A long range missile which can lock on to an aircraft up to 70
miles away. It has mid-course guidance and active radar.
AA-ARM
Very little information is available but the Air-to-Air Anti-
Radiation Missile is believed to have active radar and a range of
up to 124 miles, making it a lethal 'fire and forget' weapon.
AIR-TO-GROUND WEAPONS
MK 82
An unguided 'iron bomb' with a 500 lb high-explosive charge. The
weapon is aimed at the target by means of trajectory-
predicting crosshairs on the aircraft's HUD.
RANGE-Determined by Release Height and Aircraft Speed
WEIGHT-495 lbs
SPEED-Determined by Release Height and Aircraft Speed
DRAG FACTOR-1.35
THE GBU 'PAVEWAY' SERIES
The following laser-guided bombs all use the same type of
guidance unit. A laser from the aircraft illuminates the target
with a light of known frequency. The guidance unit then locks on
to the reflected laser light and guides the bomb to its target.
With this method of guidance the bomb can be placed within inches
of the laser spot.
RANGE-Determined by Release Height and Aircraft Speed
WEIGHT-See Above
SPEED-Determined by Release Height and Aircraft Speed
DRAG FACTOR-2.55
GBU BLU 109
A hardier version of the GBU 24. The bomb is laser-guided and has
a 2000 lb high-explosive charge with a head especially designed
to penetrate and destroy hardened targets.
RANGE-Determined by Release Height and Aircraft Speed
WEIGHT-2068 lbs
SPEED-Determined by Release Height and Aircraft Speed
DRAG FACTOR-2.50
CBU 55
A laser-guided bomb which destroys its target by creating a large
cloud of fuel vapor with one explosion then igniting this cloud
with a second explosion. The resultant massive shock wave can
cause large scale structural damage.
RANGE-Determined by Release Height and Aircraft Speed
WEIGHT-550 lbs
SPEED-Determined by Release Height and Aircraft Speed
DRAG FACTOR-1.80
CMB 18
Dispenses pavement-cratering 'bomblettes' capable of destroying
runways. Also included are anti-personnel mines which explode on
contact or at random to hamper repairs to the runway.
RANGE-Determined by Release Height and Aircraft Speed
WEIGHT-1980 lbs
SPEED-Determined by Release Height and Aircraft Speed
DRAG FACTOR-1.57
CSW
The Conventional Stand-off Weapon is basically a CMB 18 with a
launcher. It can be launched at long range from which it cruises
to its target before releasing its payload. The target or target
area is made using the lazer target designator and the weapon
will fly its way to the target and release its payload across an
area. The individual bomblettes, 250 of them per CSW, home in on
armor and other vehicles causing large scale damage.
RANGE-12.4 miles
WEIGHT-2200 lbs
SPEED-N/A
DRAG FACTOR-2.00
DURANDAL
Another runway cratering weapon. Once it is dropped over a
runway, a parachute slows the missile's descent and presents it
at the correct angle of approach before its motor ignites. The
missile penetrates the concrete by up to 400 mm before exploding
deep into the ground and causing severe damage.
RANGE-Short
WEIGHT-429 lbs
SPEED (MAXIMUM)-685 mph
DRAG FACTOR-1.57
AGM 65D
is an infared laser guided fire and forget weapon which is locked
on using the infared laser designator. Once launched, the weapon
is a fire and forget which homes in on its target even if it is a
mobile such as a tank or small ship.
RANGE-24.8 miles
WEIGHT-462 lbs.
SPEED-Mach 1.50
DRAG FACTOR-2.10
AGM 109
An airfield attack cruise missile which can be launched as far
away as 186 miles. It uses digital scene-matching area-
correlation guidance and deploys multiple 'bomblettes' across its
target zone. When using the AGM 109, its target is pre-
programmed prior to the start of the mission.
RANGE-509 km
WEIGHT-1,315 kg
SPEED-Mach 0.60
DRAG FACTOR-7.03
AGM 88
The High-speed Anti Radiation Missile (HARM) homes in on enemy
radar signals. It can also be fired 'blind' whereupon it will
seek out any transmitters.
RANGE-11.16 miles
WEIGHT-794.2 lbs
SPEED-Mach 2
DRAG FACTOR-2.53
AGM 122A
A smaller version of the HARM missile. Its range and power are
reduced but it does have a higher speed.
RANGE-4.96 miles
WEIGHT-200.2 lbs
SPEED-Mach 3
DRAG FACTOR-2
AGM 84
The 'Harpoon' is primarily an anti-ship missile which is aimed by
the pilot. It is capable of devastating ships as large as
Destroyers.
RANGE-57.04 miles
WEIGHT-1157.2 lbs
SPEED-Mach 0.75
DRAG FACTOR-3.19
APPENDIX FIVE
OTHER TFX AIRCRAFT, TARGETS AND WEAPONS
BOEING E-3 SENTRY
TYPE
-Mobile radar command control and communications centre
Airborne Warning And Control System (AWACS)
ORIGIN
-USA
DIMENSIONS
LENGTH
153.8 ft.
HEIGHT
42 ft.
WINGSPAN
146.6 ft.
WEIGHTS
OPERATING EMPTY
324,317 lbs
MAX. TAKEOFF
331,804 lbs
MAX. SPEED
460 knots
BOEING CH 47D CHINOOK
TYPE
Transport helicopter
ORIGIN
USA
DIMENSIONS
LENGTH
99.46 ft. (Rotors Turning)
WIDTH
12.47 ft.
HEIGHT
19.04 ft.
ROTOR DIAMETER
60.36 ft.
WEIGHTS
EMPTY
26,862 lbs
MAX. TAKEOFF
53,887 lbs
SPEED
154 knots
LOCKHEED C130 HERCULES
TYPE
Tactical transport aircraft
ORIGIN
USA
DIMENSIONS
LENGTH
98.31 ft.
HEIGHT
38.48 ft.
WINGSPAN
133.35 ft.
WEIGHTS
EMPTY
76,309 lbs
MAX. TAKEOFF
70,310
SPEED
325 knots
AIR-BASED THREATS
F-16 'FIGHTING FALCON'
ORIGIN
USA
DIMENSIONS
LENGTH 49.80 ft.
HEIGHT 16.76 ft.
WINGSPAN 31.19 ft.
WEIGHTS
OPERATING EMPTY
15,554 lbs
MAX. TAKEOFF (AIR-TO-AIR)
23,760 lbs
MAX. TAKEOFF WEIGHT
35,325 lbs
MAX. SPEED
Mach 2+
MiG-21 'FISHBED'
ORIGIN
USSR
DIMENSIONS
LENGTH
48.18 ft.
HEIGHT
14.85 ft.
WINGSPAN
23.60 ft.
WEIGHTS
OPERATING EMPTY
11,440 lbs
MAX. TAKEOFF
18,700 lbs
MAX. SPEED
Mach 2.1
MiG-29 'FULCRUM'
ORIGIN
USSR
DIMENSIONS
LENGTH
56.76 ft.
HEIGHT
14.52 ft.
WINGSPAN
37.95 ft.
WEIGHTS
OPERATING EMPTY
17,985 lbs
MAX. TAKEOFF
39,608 lbs
MAX. SPEED
Mach 2.3
GROUND-BASED THREATS
SA-6 GAINFUL
Mobile, air-portable and amphibious, low to medium-altitude
Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) system. It's a rather old-fashioned
SAM but has been shipped in great quantities and is still a
threat. The SA-6 was highly effective in the 1973 Middle East
conflict, forcing Israeli aircraft to fly low ... and into the
range of ZSU23-4 self-propelled anti-aircraft guns and SA-7 Grail
SAMs.
EFFECTIVE RANGE
2.3 - 15 miles
EFFECTIVE ALTITUDE LIMITS
262.5 - 47,244 ft
SPEED
Mach 2.5
WARHEAD
176 lbs
SA-7 GRAIL
The most widely used shoulder-launched SAM in the world. It has
been shipped to many Guerrilla units who have made use of it to
shoot down enemy aircraft. Because the SA-7 can be launched from
anywhere, it poses a serious threat to aircraft at lower
altitudes. A direct hit can bring your aircraft down.
EFFECTIVE RANGE
150-10,000 ft.
EFFECTIVE ALTITUDE LIMITS
150-14,000 ft.
SPEED
Mach 1.95
WARHEAD
5.5 lbs
STINGER
A portable infrared shoulder-launched SAM designed to bring down
any low-flying aircraft. The Stinger is in service in many
countries and has even found its way into terrorist factions
world-wide. Extensive training is require to make this weapon
effective. The warhead is a high explosive fragmentation device
with a proximity fuse.
EFFECTIVE RANGE
660 - 16,500 ft.
EFFECTIVE ALTITUDE LIMITS
33 - 15,750 ft.
SPEED
?
WARHEAD
6.6 lbs
T-72 MAIN BATTLE TANK
The T-72 entered production in 1971 and since then has been used
extensively in its home country and abroad. It has a 125 mm
smoothbore barrel fed by an automatic loader which holds 24
rounds of ammunition. The T-72 is capable of laying its own smoke
trails and is fitted with an NBC system and night vision
equipment.
ORIGIN
USSR
CREW
3
ARMAMENT
125 mm Gun
7.62 mm Machine Gun
12.7 mm Antiaircraft
ARMOUR
Classified
DIMENSIONS
LENGTH
30.49 ft.
HEIGHT
7.82 ft.
WIDTH
11.88 ft.
WEIGHT
90,200 lbs
SPEED
37.2 mph
RANGE
300 miles
ZSU-24-4 SHILKA ANTI-AIRCRAFT ARTILLERY
This self-propelled anti-aircraft system has an onboard radar
which carries out search, detection, tracking and other firing
controls. Targets can be acquired on the move but the Shilka
normally comes to a halt before opening fire.
ORIGIN
USSR
CREW
4
ARMAMENT
4 x 23 mm cannon
ARMOUR
9.2 to 15 mm
DIMENSIONS
LENGTH
21.45 ft.
HEIGHT
7.43 ft.
WIDTH
9.75 ft.
WEIGHT
45,100 lbs
SPEED
27 mph
RANGE
280 miles
APPENDIX SIX
THE SIMULATION
A simulation is a program which approximates a real situation. In
a flight simulation, this is done by setting up the rules of
physics and aerodynamics and treating an airplane as a set of key
data, such as wing area, mass and so on.
TFX includes a flight model which does this. The main forces
acting on the aircraft are calculated, and added together as
vectors, producing a resultant force vector. Like normal numbers
(called scalars) vectors can be added to each other. They cannot
be multiplied by each other in the normal sense, but you can
multiply a vector by a scalar, which multiplies its magnitude,
keeping its direction the same. Vectors are a way of using maths
to apply to the real world, which has three dimensions.
The world works according to certain laws, which were written
down first by Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Newton's First Law
states that any object will continue travelling with the same
speed and in the same direction unless something else changes it.
Both speed and direction can be defined by a single vector: a
velocity vector.
In TFX, your plane has a velocity vector, which only changes from
frame to frame due to the action of the acceleration
vector, which changes the velocity vector in the following way:
v = v + a x Dt
Dt ('delta t') is a scalar, the length of time in one frame.
Obviously, real life does not work in frames, but the smaller the
frame time, the more accurate the calculation will be. The length
of the time interval is determined by the speed of your machine.
If the acceleration vector is in the same direction as the
velocity vector, it will change the size of the velocity. If part
or all of the acceleration vector is perpendicular (at right
angles) to the velocity, the direction of the velocity vector
will also be affected.
To find the acceleration, Newton's Second Law is used:
ACCELERATION = FORCE/MASS
In vector terms:
a = F / m
F is the force vector, found by adding all the force vectors
affecting the airplane end to end. There is a force vector for
gravitational force (weight), one for aerodynamic force, one for
thrust, and so on. A similar, but more complex set of rules are
used in determining the angular (rotational) behavior of the
aircraft.
AERODYNAMICS
FORCES
The aerodynamic forces are determined by the aircraft speed V,
air density r (rho), wing area S, and appropriate coefficients
such as, CL or CD.
Lift is the force which keeps an airplane in the air, by acting
against gravity. Drag is the force opposite to the direction of
travel, which Thrust, the engine force, must overcome. Because
drag is inevitable and lift is desirable, these are the main
aerodynamic forces.
There is another aerodynamic force, sideforce, but this is
usually small, as the aircraft is symmetrical, and sideslip angle
b (beta) is mostly small (a few degrees), whereas angle of attack
a (alpha) can be as high as 60 degrees in some maneuver.
LIFT L = 1/2rV2 S CL
DRAG D = 1/2rV2 S CD
This is a way of looking at aerodynamic forces which shows the
principal factors involved. For example, if everything else is
the same, then doubling air density r will double lift and drag.
For steady level flight:
L = W
D = T
CL depends on wing shape, angle of attack, a, wing cross-section
shape, and other factors (see below).
MOMENTS
Moment is the angular equivalent of force. The pitching moment CM
determines rotation up or down relative to the aircraft. It is
important, because it helps to determine angle of attack.
PITCHING MOMENT M = 1/2rV2 S CM
CM is determined by a, by rate of pitch, q, and by elevator
deflection, h (eta). For stability, a positive angle of attack
should produce a negative CM to counteract it, so if the pilot
does not move the elevators using the joystick, the aircraft will
pitch down again.
COEFFICIENTS
Although the equations above show variations of lift, drag and
moment with the main factors, the coefficients vary in several
ways. In addition to the variation of lift with the square of
speed, lift coefficient CL also varies with speed and other
factors. You might then ask what the difference is between the V2
factor in the lift equation and the way velocity affects CL. The
answer is simply that the coefficient is a useful way of
comparing different wings and airplanes. The term (1/2rV2) is
called dynamic pressure, and describes the pressure decrease when
air travels at a certain speed. Of course, the air at different
parts of an aircraft travels at different speeds, but V is the
overall airspeed, and describes the general speed for purposes of
discussion.
LIFT
As seen below, airflow over a wing generates lift because after
the flow splits in two at the front of the wing, the shape of the
wing causes the air over the top to travel faster in order to
meet up with the air under the wing, as the curvature gives it a
greater distance to travel. Even if the wing is symmetrical,
angling it to the airflow means that the air does not split at
the front of the wing, but on the underside, producing the same
effect as an asymmetric ('cambered') wing.
In general, the major variation of CL occurs when angle of attack
a is changed. As seen below, at a certain angle for a given
plane, CL is zero. As a increases, so does CL, up to a point when
CL is highest. After this, the wing is at too high an angle for
the air to flow smoothly from the leading edge to the trailing
edge of the wing. It begins to 'separate' or stall, producing a
wake of low-pressure air behind the wing. As pressure behind the
wing is low, this pulls back on the wing, acting as drag, without
producing any extra lift.
Separation can occur unevenly on the wing, leading to unwanted
rolling or yawing moments. So, increasing angle of attack beyond
the stall angle is not only pointless, but dangerous.
Now return to the lift equation:
LIFT L = 1/2rV2 S CL
Hold r and S constant for a minute, and assume that, for level
flight, L must equal weight W. We are left with V and CL.
Bunching the rest together:
V2 CL = CONSTANT
or:
CL = CONSTANT/V2
So, if we change one of these two variables, the other must also
have a new value in order for the equation still to work.
Decreasing V, we must increase CL. However, we have already
learned that CL can only go so high before the wing stalls. So, V
can only go so low, before you are flying along at the stall
angle, and when you try to decrease speed further and increase a
to get more lift, you will find that you don't get any more lift,
and you will stall. This speed is called the stalling speed and
is the slowest speed at which the plane can fly level.
The maximum lift depends very much on the shape of the wing. Many
airplanes use special methods to change the shape of the wings
during flight. Two examples are shown below:
The Tornado has a variable sweep (swing wing) design. At low
speeds, the wings have a low sweep angle (they are almost at
right angles to the airflow). This gives high lift, but produces
more drag than the opposite setting, used at high speeds, whereby
the wings are swept back sharply, producing lower lift and drag
coefficients (as speed is high enough to use lower lift
coefficients). The YF-22 uses flaps to increase lift. These
hinged devices at the leading and trailing edges increase the
effective camber (curvature) of the wings, producing greater
maximum lift coefficients, again at the expense of drag.
Both of these are examples of the Mission Adaptive Wing (MAW),
the concept of in-flight adjustments to wing shape making
airplanes more versatile. In TFX, both the F-22 and the
Eurofighter have a leading and trailing edge flap MAW
configuration. Both types of flap increase the stalling angle and
maximum CL, but trailing edge flaps also increase the lift at all
angles of attack (see below).
The flight control system automatically takes care of flap
adjustments, selecting the best settings at all speeds and
altitudes. You can see the positions of the MAW by selecting the
control display on one of the cockpit MFDs.
The F-117A has no high lift devices of any kind, and is thus
forced to take off and land at high speeds, and often fly at very
high angles of attack. Luckily, the sharp sweep of the F-117A's
wings, and the shape of the plane's body give higher lift than
other planes would have without flaps.
DRAG
Drag, on the whole, is undesirable, and most aircraft design with
respect to drag is intended to minimize it. Sometimes, however,
it is necessary to reduce speed, and then an increase in drag,
sometimes using air brakes or spoilers is useful.
There are several kinds of drag. Four important ones are Friction
Drag, Pressure Drag, Induced Drag and Wave Drag.
Friction Drag is due to the viscosity of the air passing around
the aircraft. The friction drag coefficient remains roughly
constant as speed increases.
Pressure Drag is due to a decrease in pressure of the air as it
passes the aircraft. Stalling causes a large pressure drop-off in
the wake of the wings, and so pressure drag is large.
Induced Drag is caused by lift. In fact, it is that part of the
force due to circulation (the effect which causes lift) which
acts in the direction of airflow. The higher the lift
coefficient, the higher the induced drag. The section on control
shows how induced drag in maneuvering limits the sustained
maneuverability of a fighter. Using induced drag is another way
to lose speed - by flying in a 'zig-zag' path, at high angles of
attack, you can 'bleed off' energy.
Wave Drag is due to the formation of shock waves at transonic and
supersonic velocities. This forms the effective 'sound barrier',
whereby the energy required to pass the speed of sound is much
greater than that required to make a similar gain in subsonic
speed. In a fighter, wave drag can account for perhaps 3/5 of the
total zero-lift (non-induced) drag. Swept wings, and specially
designed wing sections mean that today's fighters have less wave
drag than their predecessors.
Other sources of drag are external stores and landing gear. All
of these forms of drag are simulated in TFX.
SOME NOTES ON TAKEOFF
In takeoff, the aim is to attain sufficient lift to leave the
ground. For most airplanes, this is achieved by increasing the
angle of attack (by raising the nosewheel from the ground) in
order to increase lift. For safety's sake, takeoff speed is
always significantly higher than stall speed, but there is
another reason for this. When on the ground, the rolling force on
the wheels acts not only to slow down the aircraft, but also to
pitch the nose down. You can get the same effect, only
exaggerated, by turning on the brakes at 60 kts. A major problem
in shortening the takeoff distance is obtaining enough
aerodynamic pitching moment to turn the nose skyward.
Although many fighters have more thrust available than weight,
using engines instead of wings for lift is still very
inefficient. The Harrier is capable of vertical takeoff due to
its thrust vectoring nozzles, but in doing so uses fuel that
could otherwise extend range significantly. For this reason, most
Harrier missions start with a short, but not vertical takeoff.
The F-22 uses thrust vectoring in a different way. Instead of
assisting the wings with engine thrust, the F-22 diverts its
vector nozzles upward.
THRUST VECTORING IN TAKEOFF
The down-thrust from the F-22 engines, as well as the downward
force from the elevators, has the effect of turning the whole
aircraft nose-up, increasing the angle of attack and gaining
enough lift from the large wings, with flaps deployed, to more
than counteract the downward thrust and lift the aircraft from
the runway. This system makes the F-22 with thrust vectoring a
short takeoff aircraft.
The Eurofighter 2000 solves the problem in a different way. In
contrast to traditional tailplaned designs, the Eurofighter's
foreplanes raise the nose from the ground at the same time as
providing extra lift. As the rolling force is proportional on the
total downward force through the wheels (i.e., weight - lift),
this further decreases rolling force and helps the aircraft to
get airborne.
TFX simulates ground forces by treating each wheel as a separate
system, with suspension, shock-absorption, rolling forces and
brake forces.
APPENDIX SEVEN
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
AA or A-A
Air-to-Air
AAA Or 'Triple A'
Anti Aircraft Artillery
AFTERBURNER
Part of a jet engine that increases the power of the engine by
mixing fuel with the jet exhaust
AG or A-G
Air-to-Ground
AGM
Air-to-Ground Missile
AILERON
Control surface on an aircraft wing that produces aircraft roll
AIM
Air Intercept Missile
All-Aspect
Weapons that are effective at any angle to the target
ALT
Alti tude above sea level
AMRAAM
Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missile
ARM
Anti-Radiation Missile, a missile which targets radio-emitting
targets such as radar
AoA
Angle of Attack
AUTO PILOT
A mode in which the flight control computer takes over the
control of the aircraft, leaving the pilot with less to do
AVIONICS
Electronic systems in the aircraft
AWACS
Airborne Warning And Control System
BANDIT
Enemy air threat
BANK
To roll the aircraft to one side and induce a turn
BINGO
Fuel is low
BLACKOUT
Loss of consciousness due to excessive forces on the pilot
BLAST-FRAGMENTATION WARHEAD
An explosive charge which creates a large amount of shrapnel
BOGEY
Enemy air threat
BREAK
To suddenly turn in the hope that any enemy following will lose
his tactical advantage
BVR
Beyond Visual Range
CALLSIGN
A pilot's codename
CAP
Combat Air Patrol
CHAFF
A package of foil strips which produce large radar targets for
radar guided missiles
CONTINUOUS WAVE RADAR
A system which emits radio waves continuously, as opposed to
pulses (see PULSE DOPPLER RADAR)
COURT MARTIAL
A military trIal held when breaches of conduct codes occur
DLIR
Downward Looking InfraRed
DOGFIGHT
Engaging enemy fighters
DRAG FACTOR
A number which indicates how un-aerodynamic external stores on an
aircraft are
DURANDAL
Runway cratering missile
ECM
Electronic Counter Measures
EW RADAR
Early Warning Radar
FIRE AND FORGET
A missile that once fired, will guide itself to its target
FLAK
Shrapnel produced by AAA shells exploding
FLAPS
Control surfaces on aircraft wings which increase lift for a
given flight condition and allow a lower airspeed than is normal
in flight
FLARES
Pyrotechnic packages which burn with intense heat designed to
confuse infrared missiles
FLASHPOINT
A trouble zone, be it economic, military or otherwise
FLIR
Forward Looking InfraRed
FLY BY WIRE
The control system in an aircraft where the pilot inputs his
controls via a computer which flies the aircraft
G
A force experience by the aircraft and pilot when maneuvering the
aircraft, expressed in terms of the earth's gravitational force
G-SUIT
A suit worn by pilots which reduces the effects of high g numbers
GBU
Guided Bomb Unit
G-LOC
G-induced Loss Of Consciousness
HARD TARGET
Target which is armored
HARM
High-speed Anti-Radiation Missile
HOTAS
Hands On Throttle And Stick
HUD
Head-Up Display
ILS
Instrument Landing System
IR
InfraRed
JAMMING
Confusing the enemy radar by using high-energy bursts of a
certain frequency
KC
Mid-air refueling tanker
KIA
Killed In Action
KNOCK IT OFF
Slang for 'end the mission'
KNOT
One nautical mile per hour
Kts
Abbreviation for Knots
LIZARD
A term often used to describe the enemy leader
LOCK
Acquire a target and fix weapons aiming systems on it
LOOSE CANNON
A renegade pilot
MACH
Unit of speed equal to the speed of sound at your altitude
MFD
Multi-Function Display unit
MIA
Missing In Action
NAV
Navigation
NEGATIVE G's
g-force that forces you out of your seat
POSITIVE G's
g-force that forces you into your seat
PULSE DOPPLER RADAR Radar that emits short bursts of radio waves
and detects objects by the returning echo
RDF
Rapid deployment force
RADAR
RAdio Detection And Ranging.
REDOUT
Effect felt by pilot when pulling negative g's for too long.
Caused by blood rushing to the head.
ROOKIE
Inexperienced pilot
RPM
Revolutions Per Minute
RUDDER
Control surface on the tail of an aircraft which affects the yaw
of aircraft
SAM
Surface to Air Missile
SLATS
Extendible leading edge high lift devices
SOFT TARGET
Target without any armour
STALL
Loss of control due to low airspeed or excessive manoeuvre at
high altitude
THREAT
Any enemy in your vicinity
THRUST
Power produced by your engines, usually referred to as a
percentage
VSI
Vertical Speed Indicator
WP
WayPoint
WAYPOINT
A position in the world to which you have to fly
WINGMAN
A flying partner
APPENDIX EIGHT
NEED HELP?
For game customer service, please call 408-954-0201.
TFX CREDITS
Created by Digital Image Design Ltd
Published by Ocean of America, Inc.
Concept & Design-Martin Kenwright
Flight Model-Roderick Victor Kennedy,Jamie Cansdale
PROGRAMMING TEAM
Head of Programming-Colin Bell
3D Engine & Memory Management-Russell Payne
UN Commander & Combat Editor-Nevil Plura
Game Flow Editor, Instruments, Missions-David Dixon
World Generator, Flight Model-Jamie Cansdale
3D Vector-Ian Boardman, Andrew Gahan
Graphic Design-Rod Kennedy, Rob Ball, Martin Kenwright
Mission Construction-Martin Kenwright, Tim Johnson, Andy Gahan
Documentation-Gary Penn, Rod Kennedy, Martin Kenwright, Tim
Johnson
Additional Work-Tim Johnson, Charles Wallace, Shaun Hollywood
Special thanks go to Victor DeAlmeida and Mark Rogers for their
long hours of product testing to ensure the highest product
quality standards.
Music & Sound FX- Barry Leitch with help from Dean Evans
Music & Sound Driver- Les Long, Colin Bell
Manual Illustrations:
Eurofighter 2000-Richard Soddy
F-117 Stealth Bomber-Adam Toby
F-22 Superstar-Androw Sandoz
Cover Photography-Erik Simonsen
And Introducing ...The Voice of Gary Bracey as The UN Pilot With
No Name
Dylan Borne, Danny Borne Antony Burns
BIBLIOGRAPHY
JANE'S ALL THE WORLD'S AIRCRAFT 1992-93 by Mark Lambert (Ed),
Jane's Information Group, 1992
DESIGN FOR AIR COMBAT by Ray Whitford, Jane's Publishing Company
Ltd, 1987
YF-22 AND YF-23 ADVANCED TACTICAL FIGHTERS by Bill Sweetman,
Motorbooks International Publishers & Wholesalers, 1991
ADVANCED FIGHTER TECHNOLOGY by Bill Sweetman, Airlife Publishing
Ltd, 1987